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N
RELIGIOUS THOUGHT
AND
LIFE IN INDIA.
AN ACCOUNT OF THE RELIGIONS OF THE
INDIAN PEOPLES, BASED ON A LIFE'S STUDY OF THEIR
LITERATURE AND ON PERSONAL INVESTIGATIONS
IN THEIR OWN COUNTRY.
•^BY
MONIER WILLIAMS, M.A., CLE.,
HON. D.CL. OF THE UNIVERSITV OF OXFORD,
HON. LL.D. OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA, HON. MKMBER OF THE BOMBAY
ASIATIC SOCIETY, HON. MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY,
BODEN PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT IN THE UNIVERSITY OF,.e*FORp,
FELLOW OF BALLIOL COLLEGE, ETC.
[< >]
\^« , JO'
PART I. ^^^fjV.tlSf-^^
VBDISM, BRAHMANISM, AND HINDUISM.
LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1883.
[All rights reserved ]
©iforti
FEINTED BY E. PICKAED HALL, M.A., AND HOBACE HAET PEINTEBS TO THE CNIVEESITY
THEUiiuuiu^iiL
PREFACE.
My aim in the following pages has been partially stated in the introductory observations. It has been my earnest endeavour to give such an account of a very dry and complex subject as shall not violate scholarlike accuracy, and yet be sufficiently read- able to attract general readers.
The part now published only deals with one half of the whole programme, but it will be found to consti- tute a separate and independent work, and to comprise the three most important and difficult phases of Indian relieious thoufjht — Vedism, Brahmanism, and Hin-
duism
That the task, so far completed, has been no easy one will be readily admitted, and I have given the best proof of my sense of its difficulty by not ventur- ing to undertake it without long preparation.
It is now exacdy forty-three years since I began the study of Sanskrit as an undergraduate at Balliol College, Oxford ; my teacher, at that time, being my illustrious predecessor in the Boden Chair, Horace Hayman Wilson; and it is exactly forty-two years since I addressed myself to Arabic and Persian under the tuition of the Mlrza Muhammad Ibrahim, one of the ablest of the Oriental Professors at the East India
a 2
iv Preface.
College, Haileybury — then the only training-ground for the Indian Civil Service probationers.
In 1875 I published the first edition of Indian Wis- dom^;' and it may be well to point out that, as the present volume deals with the principal phases of the Hindu religion, so the object of the former work was to give a trustworthy general idea of the character and contents of the sacred literature on which that relisfion is founded. Since the publication of ' Indian Wisdom ' I have made two journeys to India, and travelled throus^h the lenorth and breadth of the Oueen's eastern empire. I felt that for a writer to be competent to give a trustworthy account of the complicated religious systems prevalent among our Indian fellow-subjects, two requisites were needed : — first, that he should have made a life-long study of their literature, and, secondly, that he should have made personal inves- tigations into the creeds and practices of the natives of India in their own country, and, as far as possible, ■in their own homes.
Even the most profound Orientalists who have never come in contact with the Indian mind, except in books, commit themselves to mischievous and mis-
' A very energetic and useful Missionary, the late Rev. James Vaughan, in his work called ' The Trident, the Crescent, and the Cross,' copied from ' Indian Wisdom ' a large number of my translations from Sanskrit literature, and interspersed them everywhere throughout his account of Hinduism withoid asking my leave, and without any marks of quo- tation or references in his foot-notes. It is true he mentions my name eulogistically in his Preface, but as many readers systematically slur over prefatory remarks, and as some of my translations are reproduced in the present volume, it becomes necessary to shelter myself from the charge of literary' larceny which might be brought against me by those who know his book but have not read ' Indian Wisdom.'
Preface. v
leading statements, when, leaving the region of their book-learning, they venture to dogmatize in regard to the present condition — religious, moral, and intel- lectual— of the inhabitants of India; while, on the other hand, the most meritorious missionaries and others who have passed all their lives in some one Indian province, without acquiring any scholarlike acquaintance with either Sanskrit or Arabic, — the two respective master-keys to the Hindu and Muhammadan religions, — are liable to imbibe very false notions in regard to the real scope and meaning of the religious thought and life by which they have been surrounded, and to do serious harm by propagating their mis- apprehensions.
And, as bearing on the duty of studying Indian religions, I trust I may be allowed to repeat here the substance of what I said at a Meeting of the 'National Indian Association,' held on December 12, 1877, i-inder the presidency of the Earl of Northbrook, late Viceroy of India : —
' I am deeply convinced that the more we learn about the ideas, feelings, drift of thought, religious develop- ment, eccentricities, and even errors and superstitions of the natives of India, the less ready shall we be to judge them by our own conventional European stand- ards ; the less disposed to regard ourselves as the sole depositaries of all the true knowledge, learning, virtue, and refinement existing on the earth ; the less prone to despise, as an inferior race, the men who compiled the Laws of Manu, one of the most remarkable literary productions of the world ; who thought out systems of
vi Preface.
ethics worthy of Christianity ; who composed the Ramayana and Maha-bharata, poems In some respects outrlvalHng the Iliad and the Odyssey ; who invented for themselves the science of grammar, arithmetic, astronomy, logic, and who elaborated independently six most subtle systems of philosophy. Above all, the less inclined shall we be to stisfmatize as " be- nigh ted heathen" the authors of two religions, which — however lamentably antagonistic to Christianity — are at this moment professed by about half the human race.
* We cannot, of course, sympathize with what is false in the several creeds of Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis, and Muslims. But we can consent to examine them from their own point of view, we can study their sacred books in their own languages — Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Zand, and Arabic — rather than In Imperfect English translations. We can pay as much de- ference to the interpretations of their own commen- tators as we expect to be accorded to our own interpretation of the difficulties of our own Sacred Scriptures. We can avoid denouncing in strong language what we have never thoroughly investigated, and do not thoroughly understand.
'Yes, I must speak out. It seems to me that the general Ignorance of our fellow-countrymen In regard to the relloflons of India is often worse than a blank. A man, learned in European lore, asked me the other day whether the Hindus were not all Buddhists ? Of course ignorance is associated with indifference. I stayed in India with an eminent Indian civilian who
Preface. vli
had lived for years quite unconsciously within a few hundred yards of a celebrated shrine, endeared to the Hindus by the religious memories of centuries. An- other had never heard of a perfectly unique temple not two miles from the gate of his own compound. Ignorance, too, is often associated with an attitude of undisguised contempt. Another distinguished civilian, who observed that I was diligent in prosecuting my researches into the true nature of Hinduism, expressed surprise that I could waste my time in "grubbing into such dirt." The simple truth, however, is that we are all more or less ignorant. We are none of us as yet quite able to answer the question : — What are Brah- manism and Hinduism, and what relation do they bear to each other ? We have none of us yet suf- ficiently studied them under all their Protean aspects, in their own vast sacred literature, stretching over a period of more than three thousand years. We under-estimate their comprehensiveness, their super- subtlety, their recuperative hydra-like vitality; and we are too much given to include the whole system under sweeping expressions such as "heathenism" or "idol- atry," as if every idea it contains was to be eradicated root and branch.'
To these words spoken by me (nearly in the form given above) soon after my return from my second Indian journey I adhere in every particular.
Let it not be supposed, however, that my sympathy with the natives of our great Dependency has led me to gloss over what is false, impure, and utterly deplor- able in their religious systems. The most cursory
viii Preface.
perusal of the following pages will show that what I have written is not amenable to any such imputation.
Nor do I claim for the present work any unusual immunity from error. Mistakes will, probably, be found in it. The subject of which it treats is far too intricate to admit of my pretending to a more than human accuracy. Nor can any one scholar hope to unravel with complete success the complicated texture of Hindu religious thought and life.
As to the second part of my task I am happy to say that it is already far advanced. But, as I am on the eve of making a third journey to India, I prefer delay- ing the publication of my account of other Indian creeds till I have cleared up a few obscure points by personal inquiries in situ.
It is possible, I fear, that some who read the chapters of this volume consecutively, and are also acquainted with my previous writings, may be inclined to accuse me of occasionally repeating myself; but it must be borne in mind that all I have hitherto written — whether in books, newspapers, or Reviews — was, from the first, intended to lead up to a more complete and continuous work, and that the book now put forth abounds with entirely new matter.
It remains to state that my friend Pandit Shyamajl Krishnavarma, B.A., of Balliol College, has aided me in correcting typographical errors, but is in no way re- sponsible for the statements and opinions expressed in the following pages.
M. W.
Oxford, Novetnber 12, 1883.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.
PAGE
Vedism, Brahmanismj and Hinduism defined. Three principal stages or phases of the Hindu religion. Origin and form of religion among the primitive Aryans . . . . . • • .1-6
CHAPTER I.
Vedism. Four Vedas. Gods of the Veda. Ideas expressed by the term sacrifice. Soma plant. Introduction of animal-sacrifice. Remark- able hymns of the \'eda. Social condition of the people . . 7-19
CHAPTER II. Brahmanism. Four phases. 'Ritualistic Brahmanism. , Development of the idea of sacrifice. ^Philosophical Brahmanism.' Upanishads. Sutras, Subtle and gross bodies. Silnkhya philosophy. Vedanta philosophy. Tri-unity of entities. Three corporeal envelopes. V^edanta and Sahkhya systems compared. Nyaya philosophy. ( Mythological Brah- manism. ; Buddhism. Tri-murti. Descents of Vishnu. Nomistic Brahmanism. j rrhree codes of law; ^ 20-53
CHAPTER III. Hinduism. General Observations. Distinction between Brahmanism and HindCiism. The philoso- pher Sahkara. Inter-relationship and distinction between Saivism and Vaishnavism. Six principal sects. Q D'o'ctrnie~~of~inLaiiialieH>.^ Saiva and Vaishnava marks. Rosaries. Symbols and images . 54 72
CHAPTER IV.
Saivism. Definition of Saivism. Worship of Rudra-Siva. Description of Siva. Saiva sects. Ceremonies performed at Walkesvar temple. Ceremonies performed at Bhuvanesvara temple . . . 73~94
-A
X Contents.
CHAPTER V. Vaishnavism.
PAGE
Chief characteristics of Vaishnavism. Tolerance. Religious credu- lity. Incarnations of Vishnu. Vaishnava sects. Initiation. Sect founded by Ramanuja. Two antagonistic parties. Privacy in eating. Sect founded by Madhva. Common ground with Christianity. Sect founded by Vallabha. Profligacy of Vallabha Maharajas. Sect founded by Caitanya. Four leaders. Ceremonies at a Vaishnava temple, Poona 95-145
CHAPTER VI. Vaishnavism. Minor Sects and Reforming Theistic Movements.
Sects founded by Nimbarka ; by Ramananda; by Svami-Narayana. Interview between Bishop Heber and Svami-Narayana. Temples at Wartal and Ahmedabad. Precepts from the Directory. Theistic sect founded by Kablr. Examples of his precepts. Sikh sect founded by Nanak. Features of his teaching. Antagonism between Sikhs and Muhammadans. Govind founder of Sikh nationality. Deification of the Sikh bible. Examples of precepts. Metempsy- chosis. Govind's shrine at Patna. Golden temple at Amritsar 146-179
CHAPTER VII. Saktism, or Goddess-worship.
Doctrine of the Tantras. Two systems of Saktism. Matris or Mothers. Description of Kali. Initiation. Wine-drinking. Mantras, Bijas, spells. Mystic diagrams. Amulets, gestures. Tantras . 180-208
CHAPTER VIII.
Tutelary and Village Deities. Ganesa and Su-brahmanya. Ayenar. Hanuman. Mother- worship. Brahmanism a kind of Pantheism. Specialities of the Mothers of Gujarat 209-229
CHAPTER IX.
Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. Seven upper and seven lower worlds. Nature and organization of Hindii demons. Two grand divisions of demons. Triple classifica- tion of devils. Methods of neutralizing evil influences of demons. Structures and observances connected with devil-worship. Extract from Bishop Caldwell's account of the religion of the Shanars. Belief in demoniacal influences and their counteraction . . 230-256
Contents. xi
CHAPTER X. Hero-worship and Saint-worship.
PAGE
No limit to deification of great men. Examples of local deifica- tions. Vithoba ; Tuka-rama ; Khando-ba ; Jiianesvara. Other ex- amples. Parasu-rama, or Rama with the axe. Five Pandava princes 257-273
CHAPTER XI.
Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship.
Main object of a Hindu funeral. Funeral ceremonies in Vedic times. Funeral rites as prescribed by Asvalayana. Other rules for domestic rites. Bone-gathering ceremony. Sruddha ceremonies. Modern practice of Sraddha and funeral ceremonies. Character and functions of Yama, god of death. Description of the career and history of a deceased mortal subject to Yama. Performance of observances and ceremonies to secure immunity from future punish- ment. Description of bone-gathering ceremony at Bombay. Sraddha ceremonies. Sraddhas distinguished under twelve heads. Sraddha performed for a recently deceased parent. Sraddhas performed at Gaya 274-312
CHAPTER XII.
Worship of Animals, Trees, and Inanimate Objects. — - '
Motives for worshipping animals. Metempsychosis. Worship of cows ; of serpents. Race of Nagas. Snake superstitions. Worship of various animals ; of trees and plants ; of the TulasI ; of the Pippala ; of the Bilva tree ; of material and natural objects ; of the sun, moon, planets, water, mountains, rocks, and stones . . 313-350
CHAPTER XIII.
The Hindu Religion in Ancient Family-life.
Twelve purificatory rites. Birth of a son. Subsequent ceremonies. Initiation. Four stages of a Brahman's life. Ancient marriage- ceremonial. Idea of fire. Periodical religious observances . 351-369
CHAPTER XIV.
The Hindu Religion in Modern Family-life.
Name-giving ceremony. Horoscope translated. Shaving as a reli- gious duty. Betrothal. Initiation. Marriage ceremonies. Wed- ding of Sir Mahgaldas Nathoobhai's sons. Indian girls. Three objects of human life. The model wife 370-389
xii Contents.
CHAPTER XV. Religious Life of the Orthodox Hindu Householder.
PAGE
Description of a modem Hindu house. Some Vedic rites main- tained. A Brahman's daily duties. Dress. Sacredness of the kitchen. Omens ; auspicious and inauspicious sights. Religious status of women. Teeth-cleaning. Application of ashes. Morning Sandhya service. Brahma-yajiia service. Tarpana service. Paiica- yatana ceremony. Vaisvade\a ceremony. Bali-harana ceremony. Dining. Prayer before eating 390-425
CHAPTER XVI.
Hindu Fasts, Festivals, and Holy Days. Hindu powers of fasting. Special fasts. Makara-sahkranti. Va- santa-paiicaml. Siva-ratri. Holl. Rama-navamT. Naga-paiicami. Krishna-janmashtaml. Ganesa-caturthi. Durga-puja> Kali-puja. Rama-llla. Dlvali. Illuminations. Karttika-purnima . . 426-433
CHAPTER XVII.
Temples, Shrines, and Sacred Places. Benares described. Tanjore temple. Madura temple. Ramesvara. Trichinopoly. Jambukesvara. Kanjivaram. Tinnevelly temples. SrI-rahgam. Temple girls. Courtezans 434-451
CHAPTER XVIII.
Caste in relation to Trades and Industries. Caste, trade, and industry part of religion. Poverty and potential wealth of India. Village communities. Tillers of soil. Village functionaries. Trades. Delicacy and beauty of Indian hand-work. Advantages and disadvantages of caste 452-474
CHAPTER XIX. Modern Hindu Theism. Rammohun Rov.
Theism no new doctrine in India. Life of Rammohun Roy. His death at Bristol 475-490
CHAPTER XX. Modern Hindu Theism. Rammohun Roy's successors. Dwarkanath Tagore. Debendra-nath Tagore. Adi Brahma- Samaj. Keshab Chandar Sen. Brahma-Samaj of India. Sadha- rana Brahma-Samaj. Other Samajes. Conclusion . . . 491-520
V
RELIGIOUS THOUGHT
AND
LIFE IN INDIA.
Introductory Observations.
The present work is intended to meet the wants of those educated Englishmen who may be desirous of gaining an insight into the mental, moral, and religious condition of the inhabitants of our Eastern empire, and yet are quite unable to sift for themselves the confused mass of information — accurate and inaccurate — spread out before them by innu- merable writers on Indian subjects. Its aim will be to present trustworthy outlines of every important phase of religious thought and life in India, whether Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, Zoroastrian, or Muhammadan. Even Indian Chris- tianity will receive a share of attention ; for it must be borne in mind that the existence of at least a million and a half of native Christian converts — Roman Catholic and Protestant — ^justify the inclusion of Christianity among the religious systems permanently established on Indian soil.
Having been a student of Indian sacred literature for more than forty years, and having twice travelled over every part of India, from Bombay to Calcutta, from Cashmere to Ceylon, I may possibly hope to make a dry subject fairly attractive without any serious sacrifice of scientific accuracy, while at the same time it will be my earnest endeavour to hold the scales impartially between antagonistic religious systems and
B
/
2 Introdttctory Observations.
as far as possible to do justice to the amount of truth that each may contain.
The Hindu religion may justly claim our first consideration, not only for the reason that nearly two hundred millions of the population of India are Hindus, but because of the in- tricacy of its doctrines and the difficulty of making them intelligible to European minds.
With a view, then, to greater perspicuity I propose making use of the three words Vedism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism as convenient expressions for the three principal stages or phases in the development of that complicated system.
I. Vedism was the earliest form of the religion of the Indian branch of the great Aryan family — the form which was represented in the songs, invocations, and prayers, col- lectively called Veda, and attributed to the Rishis, or sup- posed inspired leaders of religious thought and life in India. It was the worship of the deified forces or phenomena of Nature, such as Fire, Sun, Wind, and Rain, which were sometimes individualized or thought of as separate divine powers, sometimes gathered under one general conception and personified as one God. ^ II. Brahmanism grew out of Vedism. It taught the
merging of all the forces of Nature in one universal spiri- tual Being — the only real Entity — which, when unmanifested and impersonal, was called Brahma (neuter); when manifested as a personal creator, was called Brahma (masculine) ; and when manifested in the highest order of men, was called Brahmana (' the Brahmans '). Brahmanism was rather a philosophy than a religion, and in its fundamental doctrine was spiritual Pantheism. \ III. Hinduism grew out of Brahmanism. It was Brah- manism, so to speak, run to seed and spread out into a confused tangle of divine personalities and incarnations. The one system was the rank and luxuriant outcome of the other. Yet Hinduism is distinct from Brahmanism, and chiefly in
Introductory Observations, 3
this— that it takes little account of the primordial, impersonal Being Brahma, and wholly neglects its personal manifestation Brahma, substituting, in place of both Brahma and Brahma, the two popular personal deities Siva and "V^ishnu. Be it noted, however, that the employment of the term Hinduism is wholly arbitrary and confessedly unsatisfactory. Unhappily there is no other expression sufficiently comprehensive to embrace that all-receptive system, which, without any one common Founder, was the product of Brahmanism multiplied by contact with its own offspring Buddhism, and with various pre-existing cults. Hinduism is Brfdimanism modified by the creeds and superstitions of Buddhists and Non-Aryan races of all kinds, including Dravidians, Kolarians, and per- haps pre-Kolarian aborigines. It has even been modified by ideas imported from the religions of later conquering races, such as Islam and Christianity.
I propose to trace briefly the gradual development of the HindQ religion through these three principal phases which really run into each other. In so doing I shall examine it, as in fairness every religion ought to be examined, not only from the point of view of its best as well as its worst side, but in the light thrown upon it by its own interpreters, as well as by European scholars. And for the sake of clearness, it will be necessary to begin by repeating a few facts which to many educated persons are now a thrice-told tale.
The original home of our progenitors as members of the great Aryan or Indo-European family was probably in the high land surrounding the sources of the Oxus, somewhere to the north of the point connecting the Hindu Kush with the Himalaya range. The highest part of this region is called the Pamir plateau, and, like the table-land of Tibet, with which it is connected by a lofty ridge, it well deserves the title of 'the roof of the world' [bdni-i-dujiyd). The hardy inhabit- ants of these high-lands were a pastoral and agricultural race, and soon found themselves straitened for room within
B 2
^ Introductory Observations,
the limits of their mountain tracts. With the Increase of population they easily spread themselves westwards through the districts sloping towards Balkh, and southwards, through the passes of Afghanistan on the one side and Cashmere on the other, into Northern India.
They were a people gifted with high mental capacities and strong moral feelings. They possessed great powers of ap- preciating and admiring the magnificent phenomena of nature with which they found themselves surrounded. They were endowed with a deep religious sense — a profound conscious- ness of their dependence on the invisible forces which regu- lated the order of the world in which they found themselves placed. They were fitly called 'noble' {arya), and they spoke a language fitly called ' polished ' or ' carefully con- structed ' {Saiiskritd).
To trace the origin of religion among such a people requires no curious metaphysical hypotheses. We have only to ask ourselves what would be the natural working of their devo- tional instincts, unguidcd by direct revelation. Their material welfare depended on the Influences of sky, air, light, and sun (sometimes fancifully imaged in the mind as emerging out of an antecedent chaotic night) ; and to these they naturally turned with awe and veneration. Soon all such phenomena were believed to be animated by intelligent wills. At first the relationship between spirit, mind, and matter was im- perfectly apprehended. Whatever moved was believed to possess life, and with life was associated power. Hence the phenomena of nature were thought of as mysterious forces, whose favour required propitiation. Next they re- ceived homage under the general name of Devas, 'luminous ones.' Then, just as men found themselves obliged to submit to some earthly leader, so they naturally assigned supre- macy to one celestial being called the 'light-father' (Dyu- pitar, Zei/s Tranjp, Jupiter). Or, again, a kind of pre-eminence was sometimes accorded to the all-investing sky or atmo-
hitrodnctory Observations. 5
sphere (Varuna, Ovpavo^), the representative of an eternal celestial Presence watching men's actions, and listening to their words by night as well as by day. Of course another principal object of veneration was the orb of the Sun called Mitra, often connected with another aspect of the Sun, Aryaman, whose influences fertilized lands, enriched pastures, and fructified crops.
Then other kindred natural phenomena, such as fire (Agni, Latin Ignis), and the dawn (Ushas, 'Ilwy, Aurora), and Ida or Ira (Iris), were by degrees regarded with varying degrees of veneration. They all had names which still exist under different modifications among different branches of the Aryan stock, leading us to infer that they were among the most ancient objects held sacred in the original abode of the Aryan race, before the several members of the family separated.
There is even ground for conjecturing that triads of natural objects, such as Sky, Atmosphere, and Sun, or three forms of the Sun, called Aryaman, Varuna, and Mitra, were asso- ciated together and worshipped by the primitive Aryans in the earliest times. It is certain that the Aryan race, from the first development of its religious sense on the soil of India, has shown a tendency to attach a sacred significance to the number three, and to group the objects of its adoration in triple combinations.
Not that the nascent religious ideas of a people naturally devout were regulated or circumscribed in ancient times by any definite rules or precise limitations. The objects and forces of nature received homage in different ways — some- times singly, as if impelled by separate and independent wills ; sometimes in groups, as if operating co-ordinately ; sometimes collectively, as if animated and pervaded by one dominating Spirit, the maintainer of law and order in the Universe.
As to the form of worship, that, too, was a natural process not yet burdened by tedious ceremonial observances. When
6 Introductory Observations.
men had personified and deified the forces with which they were surrounded, they gave them characters hke their own. They attributed to them human tastes, hkings, and predilec- tions. They propitiated them by praise and flattery, accom- panying their hymns and invocations with such presents and offerings of food and drink as would be deemed acceptable among themselves, and would be needed for the maintenance of their own vigour and vitality.
Perhaps the earliest and commonest offerings were rice and clarified butter. Then the exhilarating juice of the Soma plant, afterwards an essential ingredient in both Aryan and Iranian sacrifices, was used as a libation. But the form of worship, like the creed of the worshipper, was unfettered by precise rule or ritual. Each man satisfied his own religious instincts, according to his own conception of the character of the supernatural being or beings on whose favour his welfare was thought to depend.
CHAPTER I.
Vedism.
So much lias been of late years written and spoken about the Veda, that to go minutely into this subject would be, according to a Plindu saying, ' to grind ground corn.'
When the Indian branch of the Aryan family settled down in the land of the seven rivers (Sanskrit Sapta Sindhu^ Zend Hapta Hcudu), now the Panjab, about the fifteenth century B. c, their religion was still nature-worship. It was still adoration of the forces which were everywhere in operation around them for production, destruction, and reproduction. But it was physiolatry developing itself more distinctly into forms of Theism, Polytheism, Anthropomorphism, and Pan- theism. The phenomena of nature were thought of as some- thing more than radiant beings, and something more than powerful forces. To the generality of worshippers they were more distinctly concrete personalities, and had more personal attributes. They were addressed as kings, fathers^ guardians, friends, benefactors, guests. They were invoked in formal hymns and prayers {inantras)^ in set metres {6/iaudas).
These hymns were composed in an early form of the Sanskrit language, at different times — perhaps during several centuries, from the fifteenth to the tenth B.C. — by men of light and leading {Rishis) among the Indo-Aryan immigrants, who were afterwards held in the highest veneration as patriarchal saints. Eventually the hymns were believed to have been directly revealed to, rather than composed by, these Rishis, and were then called divine knowledge ( Veda), or the eternal word heard {sruii), and transmitted by them.
8 Vedism.
These Mantras or hymns were arranged in three principal collections or continuous texts {Samkitds). The first and earliest was called the Hymn-veda [Rig-veda). It was a collection of 1017 hymns, arranged for mere reading or re- citing. This was the first bible of the Hindu religion, and the special bible of Vedism. We might imagine it possible to have collected the most ancient hymns and psalms of our own Sacred Scriptures in the same manner.
The second, or Sacrificial veda ( Yajjir), belongs to a later phase of the Hindu system. It was a liturgical arrangement of part of the same collection of hymns, with additions^ for intoning in a peculiar low tone at sacrificial ceremonies. Be it noted, however, that some of the hymns of the Rig-veda (for example^ the horse-sacrifice hymn, I. 162) presuppose a ritual already definite and systematized.
The third, or Chant-veda [Sdina), was another liturgical arrangement of some of the same hymns for chanting at par- ticular sacrifices in which the juice of the Soma plant was the principal offering.
A fourth collection — which might suitably be called the Spell-veda — was added at a later period. It was a collection of hymns — some of them similar to those of the Rig-veda, but the greater part original — by a particular class of priests called Atharvans^. Many of the texts and formularies of this Atharva-veda were ultimately used as charms and spells, and are still so used in various parts of India.
By some of the earliest hymn-composers the gods continued to be regarded as one family — children of the old pre-Vedic heavenly father (Dyu or Dyaus), while Earth (Prithivi) was fabled as a divine mother. To other sacred poets the pre-
^ Certain passages in prose were added, which were especially called Yajies.
^ This was a generic name for a class of priests, descended from a man named Atharvan, who appears to have been the first to institute the worship of fire, before the Indians and Iranians separated. It is certain that particular priests both in India and Persia were called Atharvans.
Vcdis7n. 9
Vcdic deification of the Sky (Varuna, Ov/iaro?) remained a principal object of adoration. He was still occasionally exalted to the position of a Supreme Beint^. A well-known hymn in the Atharva-veda (IV. 16) describes him as ruling the world, as penetrating the secrets of all hearts, as detecting the plots of wricked men, as sending down countless messengers who for ever traverse the earth and scan its inmates, as num- bering every wink of men's eyes, as wielding the whole universe in the manner of a gamester handling dice.
But the true gods of the Veda constituted a trinity of deities. They were the Fire-god (the earth-born Agni), the Rain-god (the air-born Indra), and the Sun-god (the sky-born Surya or Savitri) — one for each of the three worlds, earth, air, and sky {bhftr, bhuvah, svar). These three gods were the special objects of worship of the early Indo-Aryan colonists. All their other principal deities were cither modifications of, or associated with, one or other of the members of this Vedic trinity. For example, the wind (Vayu) and the storm-gods (IMaruts), led by the destroying god (Rudra), were regarded as intimate associates of the Rain-god Indra, and were really only forms and modifications of that god. On the other hand, the ancient Aryan deities, Varuna and Mitra, with Vishnu, were all mere forms of the Sun (Surya or Savitri, also called Pushan). Of course the Dawn (Ushas) was also connected with the Sun, and two other deities— the Asvins, probably personifications of two luminous points in the sky — were fabled as his twin sons, ever young and handsome, travelling in a golden car as precursors of the Dawn.
As to the Fire-god (Agni), he had various attributes sig- nificant of his interest in the world of human beings. He was God on the earth and therefore more accessible than other deities. He was manifested by the friction of the two pieces of the sacred fig-tree called Arani, and consequently always to be found at hand. He was visibly present in every house- hold. He was man's domestic friend, the father of the sacrifice,
lo Vedism.
the mediator between men and gods, the bearer of hymns and prayers from every family altar upwards towards heaven.
Fire, in fact, may be regarded as the next god to the Rain- god in the estimation of Vedic worshippers ; and certainly he takes precedence over every other god in connection with sacrificial rites. Even the Sun-god, who is generally first in all Pagan systems, is held to be a form of heavenly fire. Fire has always been an object of veneration among all nations.
A conjecture may even be hazarded that the three letters, A, U, M, which combine to form the sacred syllable Om — afterwards typical of the Brahmanical trinity — were originally the initial letters of the trinity of gods. Fire, Wind, and Sun (Agni, Vayu or Varuna for Indra, and Mitra). It must not be forgotten, however, that both Indra and Agni were, like Varuna, often addressed as if each deity were supreme. Moreover, the god of fire was sometimes held to possess a kind of trinity or triple essence in himself, consisting of terres- trial fire, celestial lightning, and solar heat. Sometimes he represented a simple creative energy, which evolved all things out of its own eternal essence.
It may be observed, too, that there are allusions in the Rig- veda to thirty-three gods (I. 34. ii ; I. 45- 2), or three groups of gods — the Rudras, the Vasus, and the Adityas. Their names are given variously, but they are little more than modi- fications of the three leading divine personifications. Only two or three instances occur of Vedic deities who appear to stand alone. One of the most remarkable is Yama, god of departed spirits. It is noteworthy that the spirits of departed ancestors (Pitris) who have attained to heavenly bliss, are believed to occupy three different stages of blessedness^ — the highest inhabiting the upper sky, the middle the intermediate air, and the lowest the atmospheric region near the earth. Adoration is to be offered them, and they are presided over by Yama, leader of the spirits of the dead, both good and bad.
The earliest legends represent him as the first of created
Vcdisni. 1 1
men (Ills twin-sister being Yam!) and the first of men who died. Hence he is supposed to guide the spirits of other men who die to the world of spirits. Sometimes Death is said to be his messenger, he himself dwelling in celestial light, to which the departed arc brought, and where they enjoy his society and that of the ancient patriarchs. In the later my- thology he is God of death and punisher of the wicked. In the Veda he has no such ofiice, — but he has two terrific dogs, with four eyes, which guard the way to his abode (see p. 16).
In brief, enough has been said to show that the early religion of the Indo-Aryans was a development of a still earlier belief in man's subjection to the powers of nature and his need of conciliating them. It was an unsettled system which at one time assigned all the phenomena of the universe to one first Cause ; at another, attributed them to several Causes operating independently; at another, sup- posed the whole visible creation to be animated by one universal all-pervading spirit. It was a belief which, ac- cording to the character and inclination of the worshipper, was now monotheism, now trithcism, now polytheism, now pantheism. But it was not yet idolatry. Though the forces of nature were thought of as controlled by divine persons, such persons were not yet idolized. There is no evidence from the Vedic hymns that images were actually worshipped, though they appear to have been occasionally employed ^
The mode of divine worship continued to be determined from a consideration of human likings and dislikings. Every worshipper praised the gods because he liked to be praised himself. He honoured them with offerings because he liked to receive presents himself. He pretended to feed them be- cause he required food himself. This appears to have been the simple origin of the sacrificial system — a system which was afterwards closely interwoven with the whole Hindu religion.
^ For example, in Rig-vcda II. 11. 9 an image of Rudra is alluded to ; and in I. 25. 13, V. 52. 15, visible forms of some kind seem implied.
1 2 Vedism,
What, then, were the various ideas expressed by the term sacrifice? In its purest and simplest form it denoted a dedi- cation of some simple gift as an expression of gratitude for blessings received. Soon the act of 'making sacred' became an act of propitiation for purely selfish ends. The favour of celestial beings who were capable of conferring good or in- flicting harm on crops, flocks, and herds, was conciliated by offerings and oblations of all kinds, and especially of the products of the soil.
With this idea the gods w^ere invited to join the every-day family meal. Then they were invoked at festive gatherings, and offered a share of the food consumed. Their bodies were believed to be composed of ethereal particles, dependent for nourishment on the invisible elementary essence of the substances presented to them, and to be furnished with senses capable of being gratified by the aroma of butter and grain offered in fire [JiomaY \ and especially by the fumes arising from libations of the exhilarating juice ex- tracted from the Soma plant.
This plant — botanically known as Sarcostcma Viininalis, or Asdepias Acida, a kind of creeper with a succulent leafless stem — which was indigenous in the ancient home of the Aryans, as well as in the soil of India and Persia, supplied an invigorating beverage supposed to confer health and immortality, and held to be the vital sap which vivified the world. Hence its juice became an important ingredient at every sacrifice, and was the subject of constant laudation in numerous Vedic hymns. It was believed to be peculiarly grateful to the Rain-god (Indra), while oblations of butter were specially presented to the god of fire. Eventually the great esteem in which the Soma plant was held led to its being itself personified and deified. The god Soma was once the Bacchus of India. The whole ninth Book of the Rig-veda is devoted to his praise.
^ Compare Gen. viii. 21.
Vcdisin. 1 3
And yet it is remarkable that this sacred plant has fallen into complete neglect in modern times. When I asked the Brahmans of Northern India to procure specimens of the true Soma for me, I was told that, in consequence of the present sinful condition of the world, the holy plant had ceased to crow on terrestrial soil, and was only to be found in heaven ^
Nor were these the only offerings. In process of time, animal sacrifice was introduced. At great solemnities goats and other animals were killed by hundreds. Portions of the flesh were consumed in the fire, and portions were eaten. Gods, priests, and people feasted together. Of course all offerings and libations were accompanied with hymns of praise. A certain amount of ceremonial was gradually added. The whole sacrificial service was called Yajna.
I close this sketch of Vedism by citing portions of transla- tions of a few remarkable hymns in the Rig-veda, as given by mc in ' Indian Wisdom.' One hymn (Mandala X. 129) at- tempts to describe the origin of creation thus : —
In the beginning there was neither nought nor aught;
Then there was neither sky nor atmosphere above.
What then enshrouded all this teeming universe?
In the receptacle of what was it contained?
Was it enveloped in the gulf profound of water ?
Then was there neither death nor immortality ;
Then was there neither day, nor night, nor light, nor darkness,
Only the Existent One breathed calmly, self-contained.
Nought else but he there was — nought else above, beyond.
Then first came darkness hid in darkness, gloom in gloom ;
Next all was water, all a chaos indiscrete,
In which the One lay void, shrouded in nothingness.
Then turning inwards, he by self-developed force
Of inner fervour and intense abstraction, grew.
First in his mind was formed Desire, the primal germ
Productive, which the Wise, profoundly searching, say
Is the first subtle bond, connecting Entity
And Nullity.
' A creeper, said to be the true Soma, was pointed out to me by the late Dr. BurncU in Southern India, and is still, I believe, used by those orthodox Brahmans in the Maratha country who attempt to maintain the old V'edic worship.
1 4 Vcdis7n.
In the foregoing hymn we detect the first dim outline of the later philosophical theories, both Sankhyan and Vedantic.
The idea of the female principle as necessary to the act of creation is also, it may be seen, vaguely implied — an idea which gathered such strength subsequently that every princi- pal deity in the later mythology has his feminine counterpart, who shares the worship paid to the male god, and who some- times receives the greater homage of the two. That this idea is not fully developed in the Rig-veda is proved by the fact that the wives of the chief gods, such as IndranI, Agnayl, etc., are not associated with their husbands as objects of worship, and even Lakshml and SarasvatI, though named, are not adored.
The next example from the I2ist hymn of the tenth Mandala is often quoted to furnish an argument for main- taining that the original faith of the Hindus was monotheistic. The hymn is addressed to Hiranya-garbha, a form of the Supreme Being, no doubt originally a personification of the Sun. In the Vedanta philosophy, Hiranya-garbha represents the third condition of the Supreme Spirit (see p. 34). In the later system he must be regarded as related to the God Vishnu.
What god shall we adore with sacrifice ?
Him let us praise, the golden child that rose
In the beginning, who was born the lord —
The one sole lord of all that is — who made
The earth, and formed the sky, who giveth life,
Who giveth strength, whose bidding gods revere,
Whose hiding-place is immortality,
Whose shadow, death ; who by his might is king
Of all the breathing, sleeping, waking world.
Where'er let loose in space, the mighty waters
Have gone, depositing a fruitful seed,
And generating fire, there he arose
Who is the breath and life of all the gods,
Whose mighty glance looks round the vast expanse
Of watery vapour— source of energy,
Cause of the sacrifice — the only God
Above the gods.
Vcdism. 1 5
The following is a portion of a well-known hymn to the Sky-god (Varuna) from the Atharva-veda (IV. 16) : —
Tlie miglity A'aruna, who rules above, looks down
Upon these worlds, his kingdom, as if close at hand.
When men imagine they do aught by stcahh, he knows it.
No one can stand, or walk, or softly glide along,
Or hide in dark recess, or lurk in secret cell,
But Varuiia detects him, and his movements spies.
Two persons may devise some plot, together sitting,
And think themselves alone ; but he, the king, is there—
A third — and sees it all. His messengers descend
Countless from his abode, for ever traversing
This world, and scanning with a thousand eyes its inmates.
Whate'er exists within this earth, and all within the sky.
Yea, all that is beyond, king Varuna perceives.
The winkings of men's eyes are numbered all by him :
He wields the universe as gamesters handle dice.
Here follow portions of hymns addressed to the Vedic triad. First, the Rain-god (Indra) : —
Indra, twin-brother of the god of fire,
When thou wast born, thy mother, Aditi,
Gave thee, her lusty child, the thrilling draught
Of mountain-growing Soma — source of life
And never-dying vigour to thy frame.
Thou art our guardian, advocate, and friend,
A brother, father, mother — all combined.
Most fatherly of fathers, we are thine,
And thou art ours. Oh ! let thy pitying soul
Turn to us in compassion when we praise thee,
And slay us not for one sin or for many.
Deliver us to-day, to-morrow, every day.
Vainly the demon ^ dares thy might, in vain
Strives to deprive us of thy watery treasures.
Earth quakes beneath the crashing of thy bolts.
Pierced, shattered lies the foe — his cities crushed.
His armies overthrown, his fortresses
Shivered to fragments ; then the pent-up waters,
Released from long imprisonment, descend
In torrents to the earth, and swollen rivers,
Foaming and rolling to their ocean-home.
Proclaim the triumph of the Thunderer.
' The demon Vritra, who is supposed to keep the waters imprisoned
in thick clouds.
1 6 Vedisni.
Secondly, the Fire-god (Agiii) : —
Agni, thou art a sage, a priest, a king,
Protector, father of the sacrifice.
Commissioned by us men, thou dost ascend
A messenger, conveying to the sky
Our hymns and offerings. Though thy origin
Be threefold, now from air, and now from water,
Now from the mystic double Arani,
Thou art thyself a mighty god, a lord,
Giver of life and immortality,
One in thy essence, but to mortals three ;
Displaying thine eternal triple form.
As fire on earth, as lightning in the air,
As sun in heaven. Thou art the cherished guest
In every household — father, brother, son,
Friend, benefactor, guardian, all in one.
Deliver, mighty lord, thy worshippers.
Purge us from taint of sin, and when we die,
Deal mercifully with us on the pyre,
Burning our bodies with their load of guilt,
But bearing our eternal part on high
To luminous abodes and realms of bliss.
For ever there to dwell with righteous men.
Thirdly, the Sun-god (Surya) : —
Behold the rays of Dawn, like heralds, lead on high
The Sun, that men may see the great all-knowing God.
The stars slink off like thieves, in company with Night,
Before the all-seeing eye, whose beams reveal his presence,
Gleaming like brilliant flames, to nation after nation.
Siirya, with flaming locks, clear-sighted god of day,
Thy seven ruddy mares bear on thy rushing car.
With these thy self-yoked steeds, seven daughters of thy chariot,
Onward thou dost advance. To thy refulgent orb
Beyond this lower gloom, and upward to the light
Would we ascend, O Sun, thou god among the gods.
The thoughts contained in various hymns addressed to the
'god of departed spirits' (Yama) are so remarkable that a few
are here given : —
To Yama, mighty king, be gifts and homage paid. He was the first of men that died, the first to brave Death's rapid rushing stream, the first to point the road To heaven, and welcome others to that bright abode. No power can rob us of the home thus won by thee.
Vcdism. 1 7
O king, \vc come ; the born must die, must tread the path That thou hast trod— the path by which each race of men, In long succession, and our fathers, too, have passed. Soul of the dead ! depart ; fear not to take the road — The ancient road — by which thy ancestors have gone ; Ascend to meet the god — to meet thy happy fathers, Who dwell in bliss with him. Fear not to pass the guards — The four-eyed brindled dogs— that watch for the departed. Return unto tliy home, O soul ! Thy sin and shame Leave thou behind on earth ; assume a shining form — Thy ancient shape— refined and from all taint set free.
I add a few verses from the celebrated Purusha hymn (Rig- veda, Mandala X. 90, translated by me in ' Indian Wisdom,' p. 24). It illustrates the intertwining of polytheism, mono- theism, and pantheism. It also foreshadows the idea of sacri- fice, as well as the institution of caste\ which for so many centuries has held India in bondage. The one Spirit is sup- posed to take a body and then allow himself to be sacrificed.
The embodied spirit has a thousand heads,
A thousand eyes, a thousand feet, around
On every side enveloping the earth.
Yet filling space no larger than a span.
He is himself this very universe ;
He is whatever is, has been, and shall be ;
He is the lord of immortality.
All creatures are one-fourth of him, three-fourths
Are that which is immortal in the sky.
From him, called Purusha, was born Viraj,
And from Viraj was Purusha produced,
Whom gods and holy men made their oblation.
With Purusha as victim, they performed
A sacrifice. When they divided him,
How did they cut him up ? What was his mouth ?
What were his arms ? and what his thighs and feet ?
The Brahman was his mouth, the kingly soldier
Was made his arms, the husbandman his thighs,
The servile Sudra issued from his feet.
For further examples and a fuller account of the Veda I must refer the reader to the first part of 'Indian Wisdom'
' This hymn (generally admitted to be a comparatively modern pro- duction) is the only hymn in the Rig-veda which alludes to the distinctions of caste.
C
1 8 Vcdism.
(Lectures I and II) \ Let me warn him, in conclusion, that the above examples would, if taken alone, encourage a false estimate of the merits of the Vedic hymns. Although the majority of the Hindus believe that the four Vedas contain all that is good, great, and divine, yet these compositions will be found, when taken as a whole, to abound more in puerile ideas than in lofty conceptions. At the same time it is clear that they give no support to any of the present objectionable usages and customs for which they were once, through ignorance of their contents, supposed to be an au- thority. The doctrine of metempsychosis or transmigration of souls, which became an essential characteristic ofBrah- manism and Hinduism in later times, has no place in the religion of the Veda 2. Nor do the hymns give any sanction to the prohibition of widow-marriages, the general prevalence of child-marriages, the tyrannical sway of caste, the interdic- tion of foreign travel, and the practice of idolatry.
The social condition of the people was by no means low. They had attained to considerable civilization. They were rich in flocks and herds ; they well understood the principles of agriculture ; they were able to build towns and fortified places ; they had some knowledge of various arts and of working in metals; they engaged in philosophical speculations ; they had rulers, and a political system ; they were separated into classes, though they were not yet divided off by iron barriers of caste ; polygamy existed, though mono- gamy was the rule; they killed animals for sacrifice; they were in the habit of eating animal food, and did not even object to the flesh of cows; they were fond of gambling, and indulged in intoxicating beverages.
' The last edition of this work (originally published by Messrs. W. H. Allen and Co.) is nearly exhausted, but copies may still be had by applying to Mr. Bernard Quaritch, of 15 Piccadilly.
2 It is true that in Manclala I. 164. 32 bahii-prajah is explained by bahn-janma-hhak, 'subject to many births;' but it really means 'having abundant offspring.'
VcdisfJi. 1 9
And it is to be observed that, just as the children of Israel found the land of Canaan pre-occupied by Hittites, Perizzites, and Philistines, so the Aryan imnjigrants, when they advanced into India, found the soil held by previous races, variously called Dasyus, Anaryas, Nishadas, and Dra- vidas, and even by more primitive aboriginal tribes, contact and intercourse with whom very soon affected them socially, morally, and religiously.
Monsieur A. Earth, whose work on the religions of India is a most meritorious productions comes to the conclusion that the Vedic hymns give evidence of an exalted morality, and draws attention to the fact that they acknowledge no wicked divinities. Worship of the gods was performed by sacrifice (yajua), invocation (avahana), prayer (prarthana), praise (stuti), and meditation (upasana) ; and, as we shall see in the next chapter, the name Brahman (nom. Brahma), which was ultimately applied to the one Universal Spirit, was often identified with Prayer.
Finally be it observed that the most sacred and the most universally used — even in the present day — of all Vedic prayers is that composed in the Gayatrl metre, and thence called Gayatrl, or, as addressed to the Vivifying Sun-god, SavitrT : — ' Let us meditate on that excellent glory of the Divine Vivifier ; may he enlighten our understandings^' (see pp. 403, 406 of this volume). Yet the author, or, as a Brah- man would say, the Seer (Rishi), of this celebrated prayer was Visvamitra— a man originally of the Kshatriya or mili- tary caste, once opposed to the Brahmanical.
^ Some of the opinions of this scholar are quite new. He sees no 'primitive natural simplicity' in the hymns, and denies that the Vedas represent the general belief of a race.
■^ Tat Savitur varenyam bhargo devasya dhlmahi, Dhiyo yo nal.i pracodayat (Rig-veda III. 62. 10). In my opinion the Sandhyfi (p. 401) derives its name from the root dhl for dhyai, 'to meditate,' in this prayer.
C 2
CHAPTER II.
BraJmianism:
The second phase of the Hindu religion may be suitably- called Brahmanism. The Brahmans themselves would pro- bably call both phases Arya-dharma, 'the system of the Aryas' (or perhaps Vaidika-dharma, or, according to Patafijali I. i. i, Rishi-sampradayo dharmah).
As Brahmanism was the outgrowth of Vedism, so it cannot be separated from it by any hard line of demarcation. Its development was gradual, and extended over many centuries — perhaps from the eighth century before Christ to the twelfth century after Christ.
The crystallization of its cardinal doctrine into definite shape is clearly traceable. In Vedic times there was, as we have seen, a perpetual feeling after one Supreme Being, if haply He might be found in sky or air. The hymn-com- posers constantly gave expression to man's craving for some perception of the Infinite. For the satisfaction of this craving they turned to personifications of the Sky, Sun, Fire, Air, Water, Earth.
What the deepest thinkers, even at that early period, felt with ever-increasing intensity was that a Spirit (Atman), beyond the cognizance of sense, permeated and breathed through all material things. They bethought them with awe of this same Spirit vivifying their own bodies with the breath 'of life — of this mysterious Presence enshrined in their own consciences. Then they identified this same Spirit with the divine afflatus thrilling through the imaginations of their own hymn-composers — with the spiritual efficacy of the hymns themselves, with the mystic power inherent in divine knowledge and prayer. This mysterious, all-pervading,
Ritualistic Bralunanisni. 2 1
vayuc spiritual Power and Presence, which was wholly un- bound by limitations of personality and individuality, became at last a reality. This Breath of Life (Atman) received a name. They called it Brahman (nominative neuter Brahma, from the root dri/i, ' to expand '), because it expanded itself through all space. It was a pure essence which not only diffused itself everywhere, but constituted their own being. Men and gods were merely manifestations of that Spirit.
Such was the fundamental doctrine of Brahmanism. Such was Brahmanism in its earliest origin. As a complex system it may be regarded as possessing four sides, or, more properly speaking, four phases which run into each other and are nowhere separable by sharply defined lines. These four phases may be called (i) Ritualistic, (2) Philosophical, (3) Mythological, (4) Nomistic.
Ritualistic BraJimanism.
This phase of the Brrdimanical system has for its special bible the sacred treatises called Brahmanas, added to the Mantra or Hymn portion of each Veda (for example, the Aitareya, Satapatha, Tandya, and Gopatha Brfdimanas added to the Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva Vedas respect- ively). They consist of a series of rambling prose compo- sitions, the oldest of which may have been written seven or eight centuries B. C. Their relationship to the Vedic h}-mns resembles in some respects that of the book of Leviticus to the Psalms in our own sacred Scriptures. They are an integral portion of the Veda, and are supposed to contain that portion of divine knowledge or revelation par- ticularly adapted to serve as a directory for the Brfdimans in the conduct of the complicated sacrificial ceremonies. For if it was deemed necessary in the early Vedic period to propitiate and maintain the energies of nature by means of invigorating offerings of food, it was not likely that such
2 2 Ritualistic Brd/inianism.
ofiferings would be dispensed with when these same energies were personalized as divine manifestations of the one Spirit. In fact the necessity for sacrificial acts [karmaii) to secure the favour of the gods became ingrained in the whole Brah- manical system. Not even Jewish literature contains so many words relating to sacrifice as the literature of the Brah- mans. The due presentation of sacrificial offerings formed the very kernel of all religious service. Hymn, praise, and prayer, preaching, teaching, and repetition of the sacred words of scripture were only subsidiary to this act. Every man throughout his whole life rested his whole hopes on con- tinually offering oblations of some kind to the gods in fire, and the burning of his body at death was held to be the last offering of himself in fire (antya ishti or antyeshti).
But the idea of the great efficacy of sacrifice was developed gradually. In the Brahmanical, as in the earlier system, the first aim of sacrifice was to present a simple thank-offering. The second great aim was to nourish the gods with the essence of the offered food, and so strengthen them for their daily duty of maintaining the continuity of the universe. The next idea was that of making these oblations of food the means of wresting boons from the invigorated and grati- fied deities, and so accomplishing some specific earthly object, such, for example, as the birth of a son. A still more am- bitious idea was that of employing sacrifice as an instrument for the attainment of superhuman powers and even exaltation to heaven.
All this involved the elaboration of a complicated ritual, and the organization of a regularly constituted hierarchy. To institute a sacrificial rite (such as the Asvamedha, Jyoti- shtoma, Agnishtoma, Aptoryama, Vajapeya, ' strengthening drink'), and to secure its being carefully conducted with the proper repetition and intonation of innumerable hymns and texts from the Veda, and the accurate observance of every detail of an intricate ritual by a full complement of perhaps
Ritualistic BraJniianisin. 23
sixteen different classes of priests, every one of whom received adequate gifts, was the great object of every pious Hindu's highest ambition. The whole course of prayer, praise, ritual, and oblation — sometimes lasting for weeks and even years — though called, as in Vedic times, Yajna, 'sacrifice,' was very inadequately expressed by that term. It was a protracted religious service which could only be compared to an intricate piece of mechanism. It was a chain of which every link required to be complete and perfect in all its parts. It could then effect anything in this world or the other. It was the great preservative from all evil, the great maintainer of the energies of the Univ^erse, the great source of all benefits. It could procure a whole line of sons and grandsons \ or secure the attainment of the highest heaven, or even raise the sacri- ficer to the level of the highest deities. It was even believed that the gods themselves had attained their celestial position by performing sacrifices. ' By sacrifices,' says the Taittirlya- brahmana, 'the gods obtained heaven.'
The most preposterous of all the ideas connected with the sacrificial act was that of making it the first act of creation. In the Purusha hymn of the Rig-veda (X. 90) the gods are represented as cutting up and sacrificing Purusha, the pri- meval Male, and then forming the whole Universe from his head and limbs (see p. 17). The Tandya-brahmana makes the lord of creatures offer himself up as a sacrifice. Even Sacrifice (Yajna) itself was sometimes personified as a god.
Lastly, the shedding of blood was believed by some to atone for sin. The limb of the victim consigned to the fire was thought to be an expiation for sins committed by the gods, by the fathers, and by men. The innocent w^as sup^ ]y)c;od to hf killed for the guilty ; but this belief never became general.
^ An uninterrupted line of sons, grandsons, and great-grandsons was needed for the due performance of funeral rites, through which alone the heavenly bliss of departed spirits could be secured.
24 Ritualistic Brahinanism.
Indeed it is evident that human sacrifice was once part of the Brahmanical system. The Aitareya-brahmana (VII. 13) has a well-known story — the story of Hariscandra and Sunahsepa — which points to its prevalence. The same Brahmana records the substitution of the sacrifice of four kinds of animals — horses, oxen, sheep, and goats — for that of men. Sometimes immense numbers of animals were tied to sacrificial posts {yiipa), some being killed and some liber- ated at the end of the ceremony.
One of the most noteworthy ideas to be found in the Brahmanas is that the gods were merely mortal till they conquered Death by sacrifices. Death is thereupon alarmed lest men should also be victorious over him and deprive him of all his rights ; but the gods promise that those who perform sacrifices should not become immortal without first offering him their bodies, and that all who omit to sacrifice should be born again, and present him their bodies in innu- merable successive births. This proves that the doctrine of transmigration was beginning to be developed at this period.
The following free translation of a passage of the Sata- patha-brahmana is from ' Indian Wisdom,' p. 34 : —
The gdSs lived constantly in dread of Death —
The mighty Ender — so with toilsome rites
They worshipped and repeated sacrifices
Till they became immortal. Then the Ender
Said to the gods, ' As ye have made yourselves
Imperishable, so will men endeavour
To free themselves from me ; what portion then
Shall I possess in man ?' The gods replied,
' Henceforth no being shall become immortal
In his own body ; this his mortal frame
Shalt thou still seize ; this shall remain thy own,
This shall become perpetually thy food.
And even he who through religious acts
Henceforth attains to immortality
Shall first present his body, Death, to thee.'
It is certainly remarkable that the idea of sacrifice as an
PhilosopJiical Byahma)iism, 25
atonement for sin seems never to have taken firm liold of the Hindu mind. Goats were generally sacrificed by Vaidika Bnlhmans at their Soma-yagas, but only in connexion with the central offering of the Soma or liquor of immortality, and only under the idea of nourishing the gods with strengthening food. Fire was the chief god, not only because he was visibly present, but because he carried up the essence of the oblation to the other gods. In later times sacrifice changed its cha- racter and its name. It was called Bali. Goats and buffaloes are now immolated by Pauranikas and Tantrikas, but only with the view of appeasing and satisfying their bloodthirsty goddess Kali, and certainly not with any idea of effacing guilt or making a vicarious offering for sin. For the ordinary Hindu wholly rejects the notion of trusting to anything for salvation but his own self-righteousness.
PJiilosophical Brdhmanism.
The second phase of Brahmanism, called Philosophical Brahmanism, cannot be marked off by any decided line from the other phases of Hindu religious thought. Its rudimentary ideas are found running through the earlier system, and even had their germ in Vcdism. It is the purely spiritual doc- trine of a universally diffused essence (Brahma), divested of all ritualistic incrustations, and carried into lofty regions of transcendental speculation.
In fact, a reaction from an overdone ritual was inevitable. People became wearied with sacrifices and sacrificers. The minds of thinking men found no rest in external rites and turned away with disgust from every form of sacerdotalism. It only remained to take refuge in speculative inquiries and metaphysical investigations. If every man was a part of God, what necessity was there that God should propitiate himself? If a portion of the one self-existent Spirit chose for a time to ignore itself, to invest itself with a body, to
26 Philosophical Brakmanism.
fetter itself with actions and their inevitable results, the consequences could only be borne by itself in its passage through numberless births. Nor could there be any final emancipation from a continued succession of corporeal ex- istences, till action ceased and the consciousness of identity with the one universal Spirit returned. The result of this introspective process was the excogitation of the Upanishads or hidden spiritual doctrine of the Veda.
The Upanishads are the special bible of this phase of Brahmanism. Many treatises so called were added to the Mantra and Brahmana portion of the Veda (such as the Isa, Chandogya, Katha, Mundaka, and Brlhad-aranyaka Upani- shads). The aphorisms (sutras) of the three systems of philo- sophy with their three branches (that is, the Nyaya with Vaiseshika ; Sahkhya with Yoga ; Vedanta with Mimansa) were founded on these writings.
They were compositions which expressed the desire of the personal soul or spirit [jiva or jivdtinan) for deliverance from a long series of separate existences and from liability to pass through an infinite variety of bodies — gods, men, animals, plants, stones — and its longing for final union with the Su- preme Soul or Spirit of the Universe [Atman, afterwards called Brahman). And here it maybe noted that Philosophical Brah- manism was not philosophy in the European sense of the word. It was no mere search for truth, for truth's sake. It was rather a form of mystical religious speculation. Nor was it an expression of the soul's desire to be released from the burden of sin. It was rather an inquiry into the best method of escape from the troubles of life, and of deliver- ance from the necessity of transmigration ; the dread of continued metempsychosis being the one haunting thought which colours the whole texture of Indian philosophy. If an Indian metaphysician sets himself to inquire into the nature of spirit and matter, and their relation to each other, his investigations are sure to be conducted with the sole
PhUosophical Drahniaiiism. 27
object of liberating the spirit of man from the bondage of repeated bodily existence, and reuniting it with the Supreme Spirit as a river is reunited with the ocean. This is called the way of knowledge {jiidna). This constitutes the right measure {praina) of all difficulties. This is the summum bonum of Brahmanical philosophy.
What, then, are the articles of a Hindu philosopher's creed? They are the doctrines which to this day underlie the religious belief of the majority of thinking Hindus, to whatever sect or system they may nominally belong.
Most Hindu thinkers agree that spirit or souP is eternal, both retrospectively and prospectively. The Spirit of God and the spirit of man must have existed and must continue to exist from all eternity. The two spirits are not really distinct; so says the Vedantist. The living spirit of man (jiva) — the human Self (Atman)— is identical with God's Spirit. It is that Spirit limited and personalized by the power of Illusion ; and the life of every living spirit is nothing but an infinitesimal arc of the one endless circle of infinite existence.
Again, Hindu philosophers agree that mind (manas) is distinct from spirit or soul. Mind is not eternal in the same way. It is an internal organ, standing between the five organs of perception and the five organs of action, belonging to both, regulating the functions of both and re- ceiving the impressions conveyed by both. These functions are perception (buddhi) and volition (saiikalpa, vikalpa) respectively. Hence the spirit cannot exercise perception, consciousness, thought, or will, unless joined to mind and invested with a bodily covering or vehicle.
And of actual bodily coverings there are two : — first, the
^ It is generally better to translate the philosophical terms Atman, Brahman, and Purusha by 'spirit' rather than by 'soul,' because the expression 'soul' is liable to convey the idea of thinking and feeling, whereas pure Atman, Brahman, and Purusha neither think, nor feel, nor are conscious. The translation ' Self is sometimes more suitable.
28 Philosophical Brahmanism.
subtle body^ {li''>g(i or sukshma-sarira or ativahika), which incloses a portion of the universal spirit in a kind of subtle or tenuous envelope^, constituting it a living individual per- sonal soul [jlvdtman), and carrying it through all its corpo- real migrations till its final reunion with its source ; secondly, the gross body {stJulla-sarira)^ which surrounds the spirit's subtle vehicle, and is of various forms in the various stages and conditions of existence through animate or inanimate, organic or inorganic life.
And mark that the gross body is of three kinds — divine, earthly, and intermediate — the latter being that peculiar frame with which the departed spirit, along with its subtle frame, is invested after the burning of the earthly gross body, and during the interval preceding the assumption of another earthly gross body. This intermediate body (com- monly called preta-sarira, the dead man's body) serves, as it were, to support and, as it were, to clothe the departed spirit during its several residences in the world of spirits [pi/ri-loka) ; "whence its philosophical name Adhishthana- deha. It is of the same nature, though inferior to the divine body of the gods ; and, though, like that divine body, really composed of gross (sthula) particles, is of a more ethereal substance than the earthly body. Without it the spirit would be incapable of enjoying bliss or suffering misery in the inter- mediate temporary paradise, or purgatory^, through which all spirits have to pass before assuming new terrestrial bodies.
And be it noted that the union of spirit with a succession of bodily forms is dreaded as the worst form of bondage. The spirit, so united, commences acting, and all actions,
^ In the Vedanta system there are three bodily coverings, the Causal body (Karana-sarlra) coming first ; but this is merely another name for Ajiiana (see p. 35), and can scarcely be regarded as a material substance.
"^ Its minuteness is denoted by its being described as 'of the size of a thumb' {afigushijui-indtra), though some apply this expression to the intermediate body.
^ The heaven and hell of orthodox Brahmanism are only temporary.
Philosophical Brcthmanism. 29
good or bad, lead to consequences, and these consequences must have their adequate rewards or punishments. It is on this account that the spirit must of necessity be removed to temporary heavens or hells. Thence it must migrate into higher, intermediate, and lower corporeal forms, according to its various degrees of merit or demerit, till it attains the great end — entire emancipation from the bondage of repeated bodily existence, and reabsorption into the one Spirit of the Universe.
With regard to the external world, it is a fixed dogma of every Plindu philosopher that ex nihilo nihil fit — nothing is produced out of nothing. Therefore, the external world is eternal. But according to one view, the external world is evolved out of an eternally existing productive germ united to eternally existing individual Spirits. According to another, it is evolved out of the Illusion which overspreads the one eternal Spirit, and becomes one with it, though having no real existence. These two theories in regard to the creation of the world — the first represented in the Saiikhya system, the second in the Vedanta system — are both of great antiquity.
The first shadowing forth of the mystery of the creation of male and female, and of the living world through their union, is traceable in some of the Vedic hymns. The well-known hymn of the Rig-veda (X. 129, 4), already quoted, asserts that first ' in that One Being arose Desire, which was the primal germ of Mind, and which the wise, searching out in their thoughts, discovered to be the subtle bond connecting Entity with Non-entity.'
i^gain, the Satapatha-Brahmana (XIV. 4. 2. 4, etc.) and Brihad-aranyaka Upanishad (I. 3) declare that ' the Supreme Being was not happy, being alone. He wished for a second. He caused his own self to fall in twain, and thus became husband and wife. He approached her^ and thus were human beings produced' (see p. 182}.
In this latter passage is the first clear statement of a duality
30 Philosophical Brahmanism.
in the divine unity — an idea ingrained in the Hindu mind quite as strongly as the doctrine of a Trinity in Unity is in the mind of Christian theologians — an idea, too, which had been previously adumbrated in the supposed marriage of Heaven and Earth for the production of gods, men, and all creatures.
The idea was expanded in the mythical cosmogony of Manu, Book I. 5, etc. There it is said that the universe first existed only in darkness as if immersed in sleep. Then the Self-existent (Svayam-bhu) still undeveloped (A-vyakta), having willed to produce various beings from his own sub- stance, first with a mere thought created the waters, and placed on them a productive seed or o.^^ (bija). Then he himself was born in that &g% in the form of Brahma. Next he caused the q.^% to divide itself, and out of its two divisions framed the heaven above and the earth beneath. Afterwards, having divided his own substance, he became half male, half female (I. 32), and from that female produced Viraj, from whom was created Manu, the secondary progenitor of all beings. The order of the creation of the five elements is I. Ether (Akasa) ; 3. Air (Vayu) ; 3. Fire (Tejas or Jyotis); 4. Water (Apah, pi.) ; 5. Earth (Prithivi or Bhumi) ; but these resulted from a previous creation of five subtle elements (tanmatra). The Nyaya-sutra reverses the order.
So again in the Sahkhya philosophy, there are two eternal principles — the Producer and the Spirit. The former is an eternal productive germ or Creative Force which is called Prakriti (feminine), because it produces (prakaroti) twenty-four products. It is also called Pradhana, because it is the fixed material cause of everything except the Spirit — which is twenty-fifth in the series. This infinitely subtle elementary productive germ, though one, is supposed to be made up of a trinity of co-eternal primordial qualities in perfect equipoise (samya). These are called Gunas, not because they are simply qualities, but because they act like 'cords' to bind
rhilosophical Bi ahnianis))!. 31
the spirit with triple bonds. They are, 1. Sattva, 'purity' or 'goodness;' 2. Rajas, 'passion' or 'activity;' and 3. Tamas, ' darkness ' or ' indifference ; ' sometimes regarded as equivalent to pleasure, pain, and indolence respectively.
The Spirit or second eternal principle called Purusha (the I\Iale or Self) is not, like Prakriti, one ; nor does it l)roduce anything. It is multitudinous. Spirits are innume- rable, each separate Spirit being co-eternal with Prakriti; but doing nothing and creating nothing. When human beings or any other beings are created, the creation is always effected through evolution out of Prakriti, which is nevertheless a merely blind and dark force ; no creation at all being apparent imless this force brings itself into union with some one eter- nally existing separate spirit. Prakriti, in short, unites itself with the Spirit or Self and binds it with the triple bond of the three above-named Gunas^ in order that this Spirit may reflect or illumine the evolved world as a clear river reflects dark trees, or as a bright crystal vase illumines a flower, while the flower itself colours the crystal.
The first step in the evolution out of Prakriti is the pro- duction of Intellect or intelligent perception (Buddhi). Next comes the faculty of Self-consciousness or personality, called the I-maker (Aham-kara), and then the five subtle and five gross elements, the latter being the product of the former. Last in the series come the five organs of perception, the five organs of action and the internal organ, mind (Manas), which holds a position between the ten other organs, mediating between them as the instrument of both perception and volition'-. These constitute the twenty-five principles of the Sahkhya system.
^ The Spirit before its association with these Gunas is called Nirguna ; and when bound by them, Saguna.
^ In this and in the Nyiiya system Buddhi, ' intellect,' is anterior and superior to Manas, 'mind,' which is merely the instrument of thought. It governs the mind, and causes it to decide. Manu's theory is a combination of Sai'ikhya and Vedanta. In Book I. 14, etc. it is said that
2 Philosophical Drahinanism.
The noteworthy point is that consciousness, cognition, will, and thought do not belong to the creative force Prakrit! and its creations. Intellect; the I-maker, and Mind (Buddhi, Aham-kara, Manas) when existing separately, nor to the spirit (Purusha) when existing separately, but only to the two when united. In short, two factors — the active, creative but blind force, and the inactive, passive but illuminating spirit — must come together before there can be even any conscious- ness or sense of personality. And yet the creation is not supposed to take place for the sake of the two together, but only that it may be illuminated and observed by each separate individual spirit or soul, which nevertheless is a wholly apathetic, isolated, and indifferent spectator of the act. It is clear from this how easy it became to confuse Purusha wnth Prakriti and to regard either the one or the other or the union of both as the source of the external world ^.
Of course when any being is created the three primordial qualities, Purity, Passion, and Darkness, are no longer equally balanced as they are in the creative germ, Prakriti. Creation is a result of the disturbance of this equilibrium. One or other quality is then in excess, making a being unselfish and good, selfish and energetic, bestial and ignorant, according as either purity, passion, or darkness may happen to prepon- derate.
I need not point out that this remarkable theory of innu-
Brahma, when born from the egg deposited by the Self-existent, drew out the external world from pure spirit (Atman). The first product was the principle of thought (Manas = Buddhi or Mahat). Next came Personality (Aham-kara), and then the seven subtle elements (Tan- matras). From these seven active principles (called 'the seven Puru- shas,' I. 19) — viz. Mahat or Buddhi (called Manas in I. 14, 74, 75), Aham-kara, and the five subtle elements — were evolved the five gross or material elements {jiiahd-blifUa), the organs of sense, and the whol^ world of sense.
^ Professor A. E. Gough in the ' Calcutta Review' has thrown great light on the Saiikhya and Vedanta systems and their close connexion with each other.
Philosophical Brahmanism. 33
mcrable personal creations by individual souls is not without its counterpart in European systems^. In India the idea of a separate spiritual Self combining with a primordial force for the creation of all things was, as we have seen, of great antiquity. And notwithstanding the physical and metaphysical subtleties with which it was connected, the notion of the universe proceeding from a male principle regarded as a generator, and a female principle regarded as an eternal energy or capacity [sakti), commended itself to the popular mind as harmonizing with the operations and phenomena everywhere apparent in nature. To this day it is symbolized all over India by temples dedicated to the male and female organ (called Linga and Yoni). It is clear that in such a system there can be no need for the existence of a supreme eternal Spirit as distinct from the personal spirit, even though such a supreme Being be theoretically admitted (as in the Yoga branch of the Sahkhya).
The so-called pantheistic theory of the Vedanta philosophy is even more attractive to the majority of Hindu thinkers. It is true that the Sahkhya and Vedanta together underlie Brahmanism ; but the Vedanta is the more orthodox. It is a belief in the non-duality and non-plurality of Spirit — that is to say, in one eternal Spirit called Atman- (nom. Atma) or Brahman (nom. Brahma, see p. 43) instead of in many, — a belief in the identification of the human spirit and of all the pheno- mena of nature with that one Spirit, when enveloped in illusion. In other words, the separate existence of man's soul and of all natural phenomena is only illusory.
This doctrine is said to rest on another well-known hymn of the Veda (X. 90) called the Purusha-sukta. There the one embodied Spirit is called Purusha (see p. 17), and is said to be ' everything, whatever is, has been, and shall be.' The same doctrine is briefly formulated in three
^ The Saiikhya has much in common with the Idealism of Berkeley. ' One etymology given for Atman is an, to breathe. Compare p. 20.
D
•^
4 PJiilosophical B7'ahnian{sm.
words (from the Chandogya Upanishad) used as a creed in the present day by Indian Theistic as well as Pantheistic sects — Ekani cva advitlymn, ' there is but one Being, no second.' Nothing really exists but the one impersonal Spirit, called Atma or Brahma ( = Purusha). From him is everything born ; in him it breathes ; in him it is dissolved (tajjalan). He, in the illusion thai ovcrspi'eads him, is to the external world what yarn is to cloth, what milk to curds, what clay to a jar ; but only in that illusion ^. As ether contained in various vessels and as the sun reflected on various mirrors is one but apparently many, so is the spirit one and many. As the potter by the help of clay makes a pot, so the Spirit itself causes its various births. As an actor paints his body with colours and assumes various forms, so the Spirit assumes the bodies caused by its deeds. This eternal impersonal Atma or Brahma is absolutely One (unlike the Sankhyan Spirit or Purusha, which is multitudinous) ; yet it is made up of a trinity of co-eternal essences — to wit, pure unconscious Ex- istence (Sat), pure Thought (Cit)^, and pure Bliss (Ananda).
And here let me observe that more than one Christian writer has pointed out how remarkably this tri-unity of Entities corresponds with the Trinitarian doctrine of God the Father^ who is the Author of all Existence ; God the Son, who is the Source of all Wisdom and Knowledge ; and God the Holy Spirit, who is the Source of all Joy. But we must bear in mind that, with the Vedantist, Brahma is only Exist- ence in the negation of non-existence, only Thought in the negation of non-thought,' only Bliss in the negation of non- bliss and of all the miseries of transmigration.
When this impersonal unconscious Spirit assumes con-
^ He is not the actual material cause of the world as clay of ajar, but the illusory material cause as a rope might be of a snake ; see p. 37, 1. 7.
'^ Cm., 'pure unconscious thought' alone, or its equivalent Caitanya, is often used for Brahma. Brahma is also described in the Upanishads as Truth, Knowledge, Infinity.
Philosophical Drahniaiiisni. 35
sciousness and personality — that is, when it begins to exist in any object, to think about anything or be joyful about any- thing—it does so by associating itself with the power of Illusion (Maya) and investing itself with three corporeal envelopes.
First, the causal body (karana-sarira) identified with Ajnana or Ignorance'; secondly, the subtle body (lihga-sarira) ; and thirdly, the gross material body (sthCda-sarlra). In this way the impersonal Spirit is converted into a personal God who can be worshipped, and so becomes the Supreme Lord (Isvara, Taramesvara) and Ruler of the world. To be strictly accurate, however, it should be stated that the Vedanta theory makes the assumption of these three bodies involve the assumption of three distinct divine personalities, each of which is supposed to invest a particular condition of spirit. Thus, with the first or causal body, the impersonal Spirit becomes the Supreme Lord, Paramesvara, supposed to represent and embody the mystical totality of dreamless spirits ; with the second or subtle body the impersonal Spirit becomes Hiranya-garbha (or Sutratman, or Prana), supposed to represent the aggregate of dreaming spirits, connecting them like the Sutra or thread of a necklace ; with the third or gross body it becomes Viraj (or Vaisvanara, Prajapati, Purusha), supposed to represent and embody the aggregate of waking spirits (compare p. 28).
This third condition of spirit or that of being wide awake, though with us considered to be the highest state, is by Hindu philosophers held to be the lowest, because farthest removed from unconscious spirit. In fact, beyond and underlying all three conditions of spirit is the fourth (turiya) or pure abstract impersonal Spirit (Brahma) itself.
Of course these hyper-subtlcties are beyond the scope of
^ The Karana-«arTra is not only identified with Ignorance (Ajnana or Avidya), but also with Illusion (Maya). It is, therefore, no real body. Both Ignorance and Illusion are the sole cause of the separation of the personal God and the personal human soul from the universal Soul. In the same way they are the cause of every existing thing.
D 2
2,6 PJiilosophical Brahmanism.
ordinary philosophic thought ; but they show how great is the difference between the Pantheism of India and that of Europe. A Vedantist beHeves in one impersonal Spirit, who, by association with Illusion, becomes one Supreme personal God (Paramesvara). And it is this personal God who, when he engages in the creation, preservation, and dissolution of the Universe, is held to be dominated by one or other of the three Qualities (Gunas) which are the supposed constituents of his causal body, identified, as it is, with Ignorance^. These three Qualities or conditions are the same as those which in the Saii- khyan system are the constituents of Prakrit! — namely. Activity, Goodness, and Indifference (Rajas, Sattva, Tamas)^. They are those which in the later doctrine of the Puranas are held to separate the one Supreme personal God into the three divine personalities of Brahma (nom. case), Vishnu, and Rudra-Siva, each accompanied by his own consort^.
Dominated by Activity (Rajas), the Supreme Being is Brahma, the Creator ; by Goodness (Sattva), he is Vishnu, the Preserver ; by Indifference (Tamas), he is Rudra, the Dissolver.
Pure Vedantism, then, is not only a belief in one un- conscious, impersonal Spirit made up of three essences. It is a belief that a kind of threefold trinity— to wit, three spiritual essences, three corporeal envelopes, and three do- minating qualities — together constitute one personal God, as well as every human personality.
' In other words, the Karana-sarlra — consisting of Ignorance, and therefore made up of the three Gunas — is the illusory corporeal disguise (upadhi) or investing envelope or triple bond of the impersonal Spirit Brahma, by which it becomes the personal God Paramesvara, who is thence called Saguna (associated with the Gunas). In its impersonal state the Spirit is Nirguna.
-' Sometimes regarded as equivalent to Passion or Pain, Purity or Happiness, and Apathy or Ignorance.
^ In the later mythology the expression Sakti is substituted for Maya, Prakriti, and Ajnana, as representing the wife of the personal God.
PhilosopJiiial Bra/imanisrn. 37
It is by reason, then, of association with Illusion or Ignor- ance (made up of the three Qualities), that the Supreme Spirit (Paramatman) enshrined in the personal God, and the livinij spirit (jivatman) enshrined in the heart of man, believe in their own individuality, mistaking it and the surrounding world for realities, just as a rope in a dark night might be mistaken for a snake. The moment that the personalized spirit sets itself free from the power of Illusion or Ignorance, its identity and that of the whole phenomenal universe with the one impersonal Spirit, Atman ( = Paramatman, Brahma), is re-established. Strange to say, this Illusion or Ignorance is held to have an eternal existence equally with the one eternal Brahma ^ though, owing to the fact that such existence is unreal, and the whole evolved world unreal too, it follows that nothing really existent is left but Brahma. In other words, all that really exists is identical with Brahma.
In fact, the more evidently physical and metaphysical speculations are opposed to common sense, the more favour do they find with some Hindu thinkers. Common sense tells an Englishman that he really exists himself, and that everything he sees around him really exists also. He cannot abandon these two primary convictions. Not so the Hindii Vedantist. Dualism is his bugbear, and common sense, when it maintains any kind of real duality, either the separate independent existence of a man's own Spirit and of God's Spirit or of spirit and matter, is guilty of gross deception.
And yet, after all, when the Vedantist theory, as held at present, is closely examined, it turns out to be virtually as dualistic, in regard to spirit and matter, as the Saiikhya ; the only difference being that the source of the material world (Prakriti or Maya) in the Saiikhya is held to have a real eternal existence instead of a merely illusory eternal
^ Maya-cid-yogo 'nadil.i, 'the union of C\d and Maya is from all eternity.' See Professor Cough's articles on the Philosophy of the Upanishads.
38 Philosophical Brahmanism.
existence ^ Brahma and Maya 'Illusion' in the Vedanta system must be united in the act of creation. The external world is the product of two eternal principles (virtually comparable to Light and Darkness in the Saiikhya, and to Knowledge and Ignorance in the Vedanta). The chief differ- ence between the two systems lies in the plurality of Spirits as distinguished from the unity of Spirit. Yet the Vedantist, while asserting the latter, virtually believes in three conditions of being, real, practical, and illusory. He affirms that the one Spirit Brahma alone has a real (paramarthika) existence ; yet he allows a practical (vyavaharika) separate existence to human spirits, to the world, and to the personal God or gods, as well as an illusory (pratibhasika) existence.
Hence every object is to be dealt with practically as if it were really what it appears to be. A god is practically a god ; a man, a man ; a beast, a beast ; so that when a man feeds a horse he does not feed him as a portion of God^ but as an animal kept for riding. The Vedanta theory, like the Saiikhya, has taken deep root in the Indian mind. Both are the real source of the popular religion and mythology of the Hindus. Both permeate their literature and give a colour to every thought and feeling of their daily lives. And hence it is not difficult to understand how a people imbued with the idea that the world is an illusion should be destitute of any taste for historical investigations. No such thing as a genuine history or biography exists in the whole of Sanskrit literature. Historical researches are to a Hindu simple foolishness.
The third philosophical system, called Nyaya — or the act of going into any subject analytically (opposed to Saiikhya
^ Perhaps the only true monistic theory is that of the Buddhist, who afifirms that nothing exists but the self-creative Universe, which, however, he also calls Maya, ' Illusion.' A Vedantist is Brahma-vadl, 'one who affirms that Brahma is the only reality;' a Buddhist is Sunya-vadl, 'one who affirms a blank for God ;' and a Saiikhya is Pradhana-vadI, one who affirms that all things proceed from Pradhana (Prakriti).
PhilosopJiical BraJinminsm. 39
or synthetic enumeration) — is not so closely connected with religion and religious speculation as the Saiikhya and Ve- danta. Yet it offers more interesting parallels to European philosophical and scientific ideas. It is much studied in modern Sanskrit schools of learning, as an analytical inquiry into all the objects and subjects of human knowledge, in- cluding, among others, the process of reasoning and logic.
In regard to the subject of reasoning, the Nyaya proper, as I have shown in ' Indian Wisdom ' (p. 72), propounds in its first Sutra sixteen topics, the first of which is Praindna, that is, the means or instrument by which knowledge or the right measure (prama or pramiti) of a subject is to be obtained. These means are four — perception by the senses (pratyaksha); inference (anumana) ; comparison (upamana) ; verbal or trust- worthy authority (sabda or aptopadesa), including revelation \
Of these four processes, ' inference ' is divided into five members (avayava). i. The pratijnd, or proposition (stated hypothetically). 2. The /ictn, or reason. 3. The 7idd- Jiarana, or example ( = major premiss). 4. The iipanaya, or application of the reason ( = minor premiss). 5. The niga- Diaiia, or conclusion, i. e. the proposition restated as proved. Thus: I. The hill is fiery; 2. for it smokes ; '3. whatever smokes is fiery, as a kitchen-hearth ; 4. this hill smokes ; 5. therefore this hill is fiery.
Here we have a clumsy combination of enthymeme and syllogism, which must be regarded not as a syllogism, but as a full rhetorical statement of an argument.
The most noticeable peculiarity in the Indian method, stamping it as an original analysis of the laws of thought, is the employment of the terms 'invariable concomitance or pervasion ' {vydpti), ' invariable pervader ' {lydpaka), and
' The Saiikhya rejects the third of the four Pramanas, and the Vedanta adds two others to the four, viz. negative proof (an-upalabdhi, abhava) and inference from circumstances (arthapatti).
40 Philosophical BraJimanism.
'invariably pervaded' {I'julpya). Fire is the pervader, smoke the pervaded. The argument is thus stated : * The mountain has invariably fire-pervaded smoke ; therefore it has fire.'
The Nyaya, like the Sahkh}'a, believes the individual souls of men {jJvatman) to be eternal, manifold, eternally separate from each other, and distinct from the body, senses, and mind, infinite, ubiquitous, and diffused everyivJiere throiigJiont space, so that a man's soul is as much in England as in Calcutta, though it can only apprehend, and feel, and act, where the body happens to be.
Its idea of the mind [niaiias), which it calls an internal instrument or organ, is that it is like the spirit or soul, an eternal substance {dravya). Instead, however, of being dif- fused everywhere like spirit, it is atomic, like earth, water, fire, and air, and can only admit one perception or volition at a J time. ■
In its cosmogony the Nyaya is dualistic in assuming the existence of eternal atoms, side by side with eternal souls. Atoms are not like Prakrit! one, but innumerable.
We know that the true Sankhya (as distinct from the Yoga) recognized no Supreme Spirit, and it is probable that the true Nyaya was in this respect like the Sankhya. In any case neither of these systems admits the absolute unity of one j omnipresent all-pervading Spirit. If they acknowledge a Supreme presiding Spirit at all, it can only be as forming one of innumerable other spirits — though superior to them — and as co-eternal and (in the case of the Nyaya) as co- omnipresent with them.
The foregoing three systems, with their three sub-systems, together constitute the philosophical phase of Brahmanism. Clearly the one great aim of this branch of Indian religious thought is to teach men to abstain from action of every kind, good or bad — as much from liking as from disliking, as much from loving as from hating, as much from earnest as from listless effort.
]\TythoIogical Brd/nuatiism. 41
The whole external world is an illusion. Actions and feelings of all kinds are a grand mistake. They are the fetters of the soul which bind it as with bonds of iron to a continual succession of bodies.
Transmigration or Metempsychosis is the great bugbear — the terrible nightmare and daymare of Indian philosophers and metaphysicians. All their efforts are directed to the getting rid of this oppressive scare. 'As the embodied soul,' says the Bhagavad-gltfi, 'moves swiftly on through boyhood, youth, and age, so will it pass through other forms hereafter.'
The question is not, What is truth ? The one engrossing problem is. How is a man to break this iron chain of repeated existences? How is he to shake off all personality ? Howls he to return to complete absorption (sayujya) into pure un- conscious Spirit? Or, if this highest object of ambition is beyond his reach, how is he to work his way through 8,400,000 successive births to any of the three inferior conditions of bliss — I. living in the same sphere with the personal God (salokya) ; 2. close proximity to that God (samTpya) ; 3. assimilation to the likeness of that God (sarupya)?
MytJiological BraJunanism.
The Mythological phase of Brahmanism has for its bible the two great legendary heroic poems (Itihasa) called Maha-bharata and Ramayana. Its development was probably synchronous with that of Buddhism.
Buddhism, like philosophical Brahmanism, was a disbelief in the efficacy of ritual, and, like it, taught the uselessness of sacrificial ceremonies and even of austerities for the attain- ment of true knowledge. It taught that knowledge was only to be obtained through self-suppression. It substituted a blank for God ; it denied the existence of soul or spirit, whether per- sonal or supreme, and of everything but body, mind, and sensations, — of everything but earth,, heavens, and hells, which,
42 Mythological BraJmianism.
according to the Buddha, arc always, through the force of works, tending to disintegration and re-integration in perpetual cycles. But while it repudiated priestcraft and sacrificing priests, it supplied the people with an object of venera- tion in its own founder Gautama— afterwards styled 'the Enlightened ' (Buddha). Its success was in a great measure due to the reverence the Buddha inspired by his own personal character. He was the ideal man — the perfection of hu- manity. He practised faithfully what he preached effectively. Adherents gathered in crowds around his person, and Gautama himself became the real god of his own popular faith. Everywhere throughout India thousands were drawn towards his teaching. His doctrines of universal charity, liberty, equality, and fraternity were irresistibly attractive. The only hope of arresting the progress of the Buddhistic move- ment lay in inventing human gods and a system of mytho- logy equally attractive, equally suited to the needs and capacities of the mass of the people.
In all probability the Brahmans commenced popularizing their pantheistic doctrines about the time of the rise of Buddhism in the fifth century B. C. The Buddha died, and, according to his own teaching, became personally annihilated, but the remains of his body were enshrined as relics in various parts of India, and his memory was worshipped almost as earnestly as his person had been revered. The Brahmans saw this. They knew that the religious cravings of the mass of the Hindu people could not long be satisfied either with propitiation of the elements or with their own cold philosophy, or with homage paid to a being held, like Buddha, to be nowhere existent. They therefore addressed themselves to the task of supplying the people with personal and human gods out of their own heroic poems, the Rama- yana and Maha-bharata. They proceeded to Brahmanize the popular songs of a people who, when they first spread themselves over India, were warriors not priests. The prin-
Mythological Brahmanism. 43
cipal heroes, whose achievements were the subject of epic song and recitation, underwent a process of deification. The great warrior dynasties were made to trace back their origin, through Brfdimanical sages, to the sun-god and the moon- o-od. Myths and legends confirmatory of the divine origin of every great hero were invented and foisted into the body of the poems. In this manner a kind of anthropomorphic mythology, well adapted to the popular mind, was devised. Nor was any amount of polytheism, anthropomorphism, poly- demonism, and even fetishism incompatible with their own pantheistic doctrines. The Brfdimans in their popular teach- ing were simply carrying out their own doctrine of evolution. The only problem they had to solve was : how could any theory of evolution be made to comprehend existing super- stitions and be best applied to the development of a popular mythology ?
Nothing, then, was easier for them than to maintain that the one sole, self-existing Supreme Self, the only real exist- ing Essence, exercises itself, as if sportively (lilaya), in infinite expansion, in infinite manifestations of itself, in infinite crea- tion, dissolution, and re-creation, through infinite varieties and diversities of operation. The very name 'Brahma' (de- rived from the root brih, 'to increase'), given to this one eternal Essence, was expressive of this growth, this expansive power, this universal development and diffusion.
Hence all visible forms on earth, said the Brahmans, are emanations from the one eternal Entity, like drops from an ocean, like sparks from fire. Stones, mountains, rivers, plants, trees, and animals— all these are traceable upwards as pro- gressive steps in the ipfinite evolution of his being. The highest earthly emanation is man, and the emanation of men is in classes and also traceable upwards according to a graduated scale, the highest class being that of the Brahmans.
Fitly, too, are the highest human manifestations of the
44 Mythological BraJunanism.
eternal Brahma called Brahmans : for they are the appointed mediators between earth and God. None of these emana- tions can alter their condition in each separate state. Ac- cording to their acts, they sink into lower or rise into higher grades of being on the dissolution of each bodily frame.
Then be it observed that a series of higher forms of exist- ence above the earth, such as demigods, supernatural beings, inferior gods, superior gods, is traceable upwards from man to the primeval male god Brahma — the first personal product of the purely spiritual Brahma when overspread by Maya or illusory creative force — this male god Brahma standing at the head of creation as the first evolution and hence the apparent Evolver of all the inferior forms. To draw any line of i separation between stocks, stones, plants, animals, men, demigods, and gods is, according to the theory of Brahmanism, impossible. They are all liable to run into each other ^, and the number of gods alone amounts to 330 millions.
But the act of creation necessarily involves the two other acts of preservation and dissolution. Hence the god Brahma is associated with two other personal deities, Vishnu, the Preserver, and Rudra-Siva, the Dissolver and Reproducer. These three gods, concerned in the threefold operation of integration, maintenance, and disintegration of being {srishti- stJiiti-layd), are typified by the three letters composing the mystic and profoundly significant syllable Om (AUM), — three letters originally typical of the earlier Vcdic trinity, and, in the mysticism of the Upanishads, of three personaliza- tions of the Universal Spirit (Paramesvara, Hiranya-garbha, and Viraj -). Like the earlier Vedic gods, the three later deities were not only personifications of the three forces of
' The whole series of evolutions is sometimes spoken of as Brahmadi- stamba-paryantam, extending from Brahma to a stump (or tuft of grass).
"^ See p. 35, and see Mandukya Upanishad, which makes the whole monosyllable Om stand for the impersonal Brahma.
Mythological Brahmanism. 45
integration, disintegration, and reintegration, but also of three principal objects in nature, Earth, Water or Sun, and Fire ; or of the three worlds. Earth, Air, and Sky; or of the three forms of matter, Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous ^ They consti- tute the well-known Tri-inurti, or triad of forms which characterizes mythological Brfdimanism, and their bodies, like those of human beings, are composed of gross material particles though of a divine and ethereal character (see p. 28).
These three deities, too, are often, as we have seen (p. '>fi\ connected with the Gunas of philosophy, the idea being that when the one Universal Spirit is dominated by activity (Rajo- guna) he is Brahma, the Creator ; when dominated by good- ness (Sattva-guna) he is Vishnu, the Preserver ; when dominated by indifference (Tamo-guna) he is Siva, the Dissolver.
Properly, according to the true theory of Brahmanism, no one of these three ought to take precedence over the other two. They are equal, and their functions are sometimes inter- changeable, so that each may represent the Supreme Lord (Paramesvara), and each may take the place of the other, according to the sentiment expressed by the greatest of Indian poets, Kalidasa (Kumara-sambhava, Griffith, VIL 44): —
In those three Persons the one God was shown— Each first in place, each last— not one alone ; Of Brahma, Vishnu, Siva, each may be First, second, third, among the blessed Three.
There is a well-known Tri-mQrti sculptured out of the rock in the caves of Elephanta, at Bombay. Three majestic heads are represented springing out of one body. The triangle [Trikoua) is also used to symbolize this triune co-equality.
In the later mythology this co-equality was denied, the
difference in the characters of the three gods being well
illustrated by a story from Bhagavata-purana, X. 89 : —
A dispute once arose among the sages which of the three gods was greatest. They applied to the greatest of all sages— Bhngu— to
' Compare p. 10.
46 Mythological Brahmanisin.
determine the point. He undertook to put all three gods to a severe test. He went first to Brahma, and omitted all obeisance. The god's anger blazed forth, but he was at length pacified. Next he went to the abode of Siva, and omitted to return the god's salutation. The irascible god was enraged, his eyes flashed fire, and he raised his Trident weapon to destroy the sage. But the god's wife, Parvati, in- terceded for him. Lastly, Bhrigu went to the heaven of Vishnu, whom he found asleep. To try his forbearance, he gave the god a good kick on his breast, which awoke him. Instead of showing anger, Vishnu asked Bhrigu's pardon for not having greeted him on his first arrival. Then he declared he was highly honoured by the sage's blow. It had imprinted an indelible mark of good fortune on his breast. He trusted the sage's foot was not hurt, and began to rub it gently. ' This,' said Bhrigu, ' is the mightiest god ; he overpowers his enemies by the most potent of all weapons — gentleness and generosity.'
These three gods differ from, and are superior to, all other divine and human organisms, in that they are not subject to transmigrations. They are beings who have attained the highest condition possible, short of absorption into Brahma.
And of these three, Vishnu, the Pervader and Preserver of all nature, is the most human, as he is also the most humane, in his character, attributes, and sympathies, and therefore the most popular. He has four arms, symbolical of the power he exerts in the deliverance of his worshippers. Portions of his divine nature have descended in earthly incarnations to deliver the earth in times of danger and emergency. They are still continually descending in good men and living teachers.
Whether, in fact, Vishnu be connected with light, with heat,- with air, or with water, it is evident that his function is that of a divine Pervader, infusing his essence for special purposes into created things, animate and inanimate ; for example, into stones, such as the black Salagrama ; into rivers, such as the Ganges ; into trees and plants, such as the TulasI ; into animals, such as a fish, a tortoise, a boar ; and lastly, into men.
And here be it noted that the idea of incarnation, like every other idea in religion, morality, and science, when
I
MytJioIogical Brahmanism. 47
manipulated by the Brfihman.s, was by them subtilized and exaggerated. Hence the incarnations of Vi.slinu are really descents (avatara) on earth of portions of the essence of a divine person already possessing a material form (see p. 6^). These descents were undertaken, reasonably enough, for preserving the world when in pressing emergencies, espe- cially when its safety was imperilled by the malice of evil demons ; and they are of four kinds and degrees.
First, the full descent, as in Krishna, one of the heroes of the Epic poem called Maha-bharata ; secondly (though chronologically anterior), the partial descent, consisting of half the god's nature, as in Rama, hero of the other Epic called Ramayana ; thirdly, the quarter descent, as in Rama's brother BJiai-ata ; fourthly, the eighth-part descent, as in Rama's two other brothers, Lahshmana and SatrugJuia. Distinct from these is the constant infusion of the divine essence into ordinary men, animals, and inanimate objects. It is well known that men whose lives have been made remarkable by any peculiar circumstances, have been held by the Hindus to be partial incarnations of the divine nature, and have been worshipped accordingly.
A description of Vishnu's other incarnations will be given hereafter (see the chapter on Vaishnavism). It will be sufficient to note here that Krishna and Rama are the only two in- carnations universally worshipped at the present day.
The other two members of the Indian triad, Brahma and Siva, have no such human incarnations as those of Vishnu, though the god Brahma is, as it were, humanized in his representatives the priests, called Brahmans.
It is true that certain incarnations of both Brahma and Siva are sometimes mentioned (as, for example, the form of Siva called Virabhadra), and there are local manifesta- tions of these deities and local descents of Siva in human form. Moreover, Brahma and Siva resemble Vishnu in having wives (called respectively Sarasvatl and Parvatl), and
48 Mythological Brahmanism.
it may be noted that Siva has two sons, Ganesa, lord of the demon hosts, and Subrahmanya (also called Skanda and Karttikeya), general of the celestial armies, whereas Vishnu has no sons except in his human incarnations^.
But it would be a great mistake to suppose that many deities and divine manifestations are generally worshipped. The gods of the Hindu Pantheon to whom temples are reared and prayers offered are not numerous. Forms of Vishnu, Siva, and their consorts, with the two sons of Siva (Ganesa and Subrahmanya), and Hanuman are the chief temple- deities of India. But there are an infinite number of divine and semi-divine beings, good and evil demons, every one of which is held in veneration or dread, and every one of which, from the highest to the lowest, is, like all the others, subject to the universal law of re-absorption into the one divine universal Essence (Brahma). Indeed, at the end of vast periods, called days of Brahma, each lasting for 4,320,000,000 human years, the whole universe is so re-absorbed, and after remaining dormant for equally long periods, is again evolved.
Here, then, lies the motive for that self-knowledge and self-discipline, which, on the theory of universal identity of being, would at first view appear useless and absurd. Though every man is really God (Brahma), yet God, as if for His own diversion, ignores Himself and submits to the influence of an illusory creative force. Under that influence He permits the unity of his nature to be partitioned into an infinite number of individual personal souls. And no such soul can recover the condition of identity with the Supreme Soul except by raising itself, through a process of self-knowledge and self-discipline, to a state of complete apathy (vairagya) and cessation from action. In fact, a condition of entire mental vacuity (citta-vritti-nirodha) or trance (samadhi) is of all states
' Nor were Vishnu's incarnations prolific. The only one represented as having children is the Rfima of the Ramayana, whose twin sons were KuSa and Lava, born when Sita had been banished to the hermitage.
Mythological Brdhmanism. 49
the most desirable as leading to complete identification with the one universal Spirit or Self. Not that a man need aim at immediate union with that Spirit. Such union may be beyond his present powers. The work of liberation may be the labour of many successive lives of the personal soul in body after body. Nor need a man's aspirations ever rise as high as re-absorption into the one eternal absolute im- personal Spirit. He may simply aim at achieving union with Brahma, Vishnu, or Siva, and become, like them, only one degree removed from such re-absorption, and incapable of further transmigrations (compare p. 41, 11. 11-20).
And here, too, lies the motive for religious worship ad- dressed to personal gods and visible forms. For one means of attaining liberation is by paying homage to the Supreme Spirit as manifested in persons and objects. And, indeed, it is a cardinal feature of the Brahmanical system, that the Universal Spirit can never itself be directly or spiritually worshipped, except by turning the thoughts inwards. No shrine or temple to Brahma is to be found throughout all India. The one eternal Spirit can only become an object of meditation or knowledge. The Spirit is to be known by the spirit ; for he is enshrined in every man's heart ; and this internal meditation is regarded as the highest religious act, leading as it does to perfect spiritual knowledge. In short, the supreme Brahma is properly only an object of internal knowledge (jneyam), never an object of external worship (upasyam), except through secondary manifestations.
And here mark the vast difference between the Hindu and Christian ideaof a Trinity. Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva have only derived or secondary existences, but the Supreme Being may be worshipped through the worship of these three or of any one of the three, supposed for a time to be superior to the others. It is even possible for the members of this trinity to worship the One Spirit through the worship of each other, each being in turn regarded as inferior (see p. 45).
E
50 Mythological Brdh?}ianism.
Then, in the next place, homage may be paid to the Universal Spirit by and through the worship of the inferior gods, goddesses, departed ancestors, living Brahmans, heroes, animals, and plants. Even stocks, stones, and images may represent the divine presence, and so become media through which the great Eternal Spirit may become an object of adoration. Nay, the very demons and fiends may receive worship both from gods and men, if by self-mortification and abstract meditation they attain nearness to re-absorption into the great Spirit of the Universe.
I once asked a Brahman, residing at Thana (Tanna) near Bombay, to give me some explanation of the fact that even Indians of cultivated intellect who assert the unity of God, appear to us Europeans to be worshippers of many gods. His answer was to the following effect : —
' All orthodox Hindus believe in one Universal Spirit, who becomes Supreme Lord over all (Paramesvara). At the same time they believe that this one God has taken various forms, all of which may be worshipped ; just as gold is one every- where though it may take different forms and names in dif- ferent places and countries. Every man chooses his favourite god or divine object to which he pays especial homage. Thus Agnihotri-Brahmans regard fire as their favourite form of the deity. They call him Agni-narayana. Vedic Brahmans make a god of the Veda, calling it Vcda-narayana. Different places have also their favourite presiding deities. Benares is specially watched over by a form of Siva (called Visvesvara) ; Pandharpur, by a form of Krishna (called Vithoba). Here in Thana we have temples of Vishnu, Rama, Krishna, Viththal, Hanuman, Siva, Ganesa, and Devi. The oldest and most sacred of all is one of Siva, in the character of Kaupinesvara. We may propitiate every one of these gods with ceremonies and sacrifices, but the Supreme Being present in them is the real object of all our offerings and religious services. At the end of each we say: "By this act may the Supreme Lord be
Noniistic Brahnianisni. 5 1
gratified!" Hence, though to you we appear Polytheist.s, we are really Monotheists. Nor are we Pantheists in your sense of the term. Only our deepest thinkers look beyond the personal God to the impersonal Spirit which underlies everything. We educated Brahmans are practically Theists.' Even the Rig-veda asserts that the gods are one Being under different names (I. 164. 46 ; VIII. 58. 2).
No7nistic Drahmanism.
The fourth phase of Brahmanism, like the third, probably had its origin in the need of organized resistance to the growth of rationalistic thought and liberal opinions. It may be called Nomistic Brahmanism, because it represents that period in Indian religious history when the Brahmans composed codes of law {sinriti-sdstra, dJiarma-sdstrd) and laid down precise rules for the constitution of the Hindu social fabric, for the due co-ordination of its different orders, and for the regulation of every-day domestic life.
Indeed, in proportion to the laxity and liberty allowed by Brahmanism in regard to all forms of religious and philoso- phical thought, is the unbending rigidity of the rules and ordinances by which every act of a man's social and domestic life is fettered and controlled.
These rules are contained in three principal codes — (1) the code of Manu; (2) that of Yajnavalkya ; (3) that of Parasara. The first is held to be the most sacred of the three, and is certainly one of the most remarkable literary works that the world has ever produced. It was originally a mere local code, embodying rules and precepts — perhaps by different authors, some of whom may have lived in the fifth century I^.C, or even earlier. It was current among a particular tribe of Brfdimans called Manavas, who probably occupied part of the North-western region between the rivers SarasvatI and Drishadvatl. The name of the real author of this re- markable work (the present form of which is now held to be
E 2
52 Nomistic Brahmanism.
less ancient than was once supposed) is concealed under the title Manu'. The code of Yajuavalkya is founded on that of Manu, but introduces many additional rules, some of which are probably as late as the first or second century of our era. It is always associated with its commentary, the Mitakshara. The code of Parasara is a still more modern work. It enacts special laws adapted to the fourth or most depraved age of the world (called Kali). The three codes together constitute a kind of bible of Nomistic Brahmanism, much in the same way as the Brahmanas of the three Vedas are the exponent of Ritualistic Brahmanism. But the Brah- manas are concerned with public Vedic ritual and sacrifice {sriiti-karmaii), the law-books with domestic ceremonies [smriti'karman).
In short, the three chief codes are mirrors of Indian domestic manners, little affected as these have been by the lapse of more than two thousand years. They illustrate very strikingly the close intertwining of law, politics, and social life with re- ligion and religious ordinances. ' The root of all law,' says Manu, ' is the Veda and the traditions of those who know the Veda.' Accordingly we find that in Manu's code the rules of judicature and of caste are mixed up with the dogmas of religion and philosophy and with high religious and moral precepts — many of them worthy of Christianity — while the punishment assigned to every kind of offence is carried beyond the grave into future states of earthly existence, the doctrine of transmigration of souls through celestial and ter- restrial bodies from gods to stones being implied throughout.
The superiority of the Brahmans is the hinge on which the whole social organization turns. They form the great
' Manu is supposed to speak as far as I. 60, and after that another sage called Bhrigu. The entire code is fully analysed and described in my 'Indian Wisdom,' pp. 211-294. The late Dr. A. Burnell's opinion was that the date of the work as we now possess it must be placed in the fourth century of our era.
Nomistic BraJimajiisyn. 53
central body around which all other classes and orders of beings revolve like satellites. Not only are they in- vested with divine dignity, but they arc bound together by the most stringent rules, while the other castes are separated from them and from each other by insurmount- able barriers. The doctrine of Manu was that the deity created distinct kinds of men, as he created varieties of animals and plants ; and that Brahmans, soldiers {Ksha- triyas), agriculturists ( Vaisyas), and servants [Sfidras) were born and must remain from birth to death as distinct from each other as elephants, lions, oxen, and dogs, wheat, barley, rice, and beans. A Brahman, however, could have four wives, and marry a woman belonging to any of the three lower castes. Inter-marriage could also take place between mem- bers of all the four classes, or, again, between the castes which resulted from such intercourse. Hence arose an almost end- less number of mixed castes, every one of which is theo- retically restricted to its own occupation and bound by its own rules.
So long, then, as a man holds to the rules laid down by the ancient law-givers and assents to the great Vedanta doc- trine that the one all-pervading impersonal Spirit Brahma underlies everything in existence, and that the spirit of man is identical with that Spirit, he is at liberty to hold any^ other religious opinions_lie_iik£S»_and may even_ass£iiL- to the __tuillis_xiL_Chrislianity. Perfection is attained by him alone who is a strict observer of the duties of his caste and accepts the above doctrine. Those Brahmans who are sound in the faith with regard to Brahma, and are obedient to Ikahmanical caste-law and tradition (smriti), especially as handed down by the great Vedantist Sarikarac'arya, are called Smartas. Such is Brfdimanism — such is the creed, which, as it has no one special founder, is called 'the system of law and religion prevalent among the Aryas' (Arya- charma).
CHAPTER III.
Hindfdsm.
General Observations.
We now pass on to the third and by far the most complex stage of Hindu rehgious thought. And at the very outset we are called upon to take note of a fact illustrated by the whole history of religious thought from the earliest times, namely, that a merely spiritual and impersonal religion is quite incapable of taking hold of the masses of mankind or satisfying their religious requirements. Something more was needed for vast populations naturally craving for personal objects of faith and devotion, than the merely spiritual pan- theistic creed of Brahmanism.
The chief point, then, which characterizes Hinduism and distinguishes it from Brahmanism is that it subordinates the purely spiritual Brahman (nom. Brahma) with its first mani- festation Brahma, to the personal deities Siva and Vishnu or to some form of these deities; while it admits of numerous sects, each sect exalting its own god to the place of the Supreme. Yet we must guard against the idea that Hinduism has superseded Brahmanism, or that they are mutually an- tagonistic. The latter system is pantheistic, whereas Hinduism is theistic ; but in India forms of pantheism, theism, and polytheism are ever interwoven with each other.
At any rate it is certain that the worship of personal gods was a part of pantheistic Brahmanism long before Siva and Vishnu became the exclusive favourites of par- ticular sects. This I have already pointed out in explaining the principal doctrines of orthodox Brahmanism. Perhaps
Hinduism. Gcnc7'al Odscrvations. 55
the most trustworthy exponent of the Arya-dharma or Brah- manical system was the great teacher Saiikara (commonly called Sarikaracarya), who was a native of Kerala (Malabar), and lived about the beginning of the eighth century of our era. lie was a Brahmacarl, or unmarried Brfdiman under a vow of perpetual celibacy; and it may be noted here as one of the inconsistencies of the Hindu religion, that in no other system is the duty of marriage so strictly enjoined, and in no other system is the importance of abstaining from wedlock as a means of gaining influence for the propagation of reli- gious opinions so frankly admitted. Undoubtedly Saiikara is the chief representative, and, so to speak, the very incarna- tion of strict Brahmanism ; and if it be possible to point to any one real historical concrete personality around which Brahmanical doctrines may be gathered, it is certain that we must look to Saiikara rather than to the legendary Vyasa, even though the latter be the reputed author of the Vedanta-Sutras.
Yet so utterly barren is India in both history and bio- graphy, that very little is known of the life of perhaps one of the greatest religious leaders she has ever produced.
It is nevertheless a well -ascertained fact that Saiikara founded the monastery (matha) of Sriiigeri (Sririga-giri) in the ]\Iysore country, as well as three others in Northern, Western, and Eastern India\ to the Headship over each of which one of his chief disciples was appointed by him- self These establishments had a complete ecclesiastical organization and a regular provision for self-perpetuation, so that the spiritual powers of the first Head of the community were transmitted by a kind of apostolical succession through a line of succeeding Heads, regularly elected.
The most noted successor of Saiikara at the Sriiigeri
^ That in the North is at Badrinath in the Himalayas, that in the West at Dvarika in Kathiawar, that in the East at Jagannath-purl.
56 Hindiiisju. General Observations.
monastery was Sayana-Madhava\ the well-known author of the Rig-veda commentary, who lived in the fourteenth century. Sahkara himself, though he managed to write a vast number of treatises on the Vedanta philosophy, led an erratic, restless, controversial life, and died early, probably at Kedarnath in the Himalayas, at the age of thirty-two.
He is thought by some to have inculcated the preferential worship of the god Siva 2, of whom some declare him to have been an incarnation. Others maintain that he himself had a preference for Vishnu, the real fact being that he looked on both these gods as equally manifestations of the one Uni- versal Spirit. For, in truth, all orthodox Brahmans are in a general way both Saivas and Vaishnavas, and any Brahman may have a preference for the worship of either Siva or Vishnu without any necessary exclusive devotion to either, and without identifying either with the Supreme Spirit of the Universe. It is well known, in fact, that most Smarta Brahmans in the present day, who are followers of Sah- karacarya, have a leaning towards the worship of the one personal deity Siva^.
On the other hand, very few even of the most ignorant and bigoted Hindus who are exclusive worshippers of the per- sonal deities Siva, Vishnu, or their consorts, and whose highest spiritual aim is to be a dweller in the heaven of one of those
* The identity of Sayana and Madhava is disputed, but the prepon- derance of evidence seems to me in favour of the late Dr. A. Burnell's view as expressed in his Vansa-Brahmana.
'- His sanctity was in such repute that he was held to have worked several miracles, amongst others, transferring his own soul for a time into the dead body of a king Amaru, that he might become the husband of the king's widow for a brief period, and so learn by experience how to argue on amatory subjects with the wife of a Brahman named Man- dana, who was the only person he had never conquered in argument. This is described in a poem called Amaru-sataka, to which a mystical interpretation is given.
'^ Two Smarta Brahmans accompanied me round the temple of Siva at Tinnevelly. They both had three horizontal lines (tri-pundra) made with Vibhuti on their foreheads, which proved their preference for Siva.
Hinduisvi. General Observations. 57
gods, are uninfluenced by an undercurrent of pantheistic ideas. Nor would it be easy to find any thoughtful Hindu who, if closely questioned, would repudiate as untenable the doc- trine of an omnipresent, impersonal, bodiless and passionless (nirguna) spiritual Essence, pervading and animating the Universe. In short, the more closely the theistic phase of the Hindu religion is examined, the more plainly will it be found to rest on a substratum of Brfdimanism. The one system is to a great extent a development of the other, and to draw a line of separation between the two, or to say where one ends and the other begins, is impossible.
Nevertheless it must be borne in mind that Hinduism is far more than a mere form of theism resting on Brfdimanism. It presents for our investigation a complex congeries of creeds and doctrines which in its gradual accumulation may be compared to the gathering together of the mighty volume of the Ganges, swollen by a continual influx of tributary rivers and rivulets, spreading itself over an ever-increasing area of country, and finally resolving itself into an intricate Delta of tortuous streams and jungly marshes.
Nor is it difl^cult to account for this complexity. The Hindu religion is a reflection of the composite character of the Hindus, who are not one people but many. It is based on the idea of universal receptivity. It has ever aimed at accommodating itself to circumstances, and has carried on the process of adaptation through more than three thousand years. It has first borne with and then, so to speak, swallowed, digested, and assimilated something from all creeds. Or, like a vast hospitable mansion, it has opened its doors to all comers ; it has not refused a welcome to applicants of every grade from the highest to the lowest, if only willing to acknow- ledge the spiritual Headship of the Brahmans and adopt caste- rules.
In this manner it has held out the right hand of brotherhood to the Fetish-worshipping aborigines of India ; it has stooped
58 Hindfdsm. General Observations,
to the demonolatry of various savage tribes ; it has not scru- pled to encourage the adoration of the fish, the boar^, the serpent, trees, plants, stones, and devils ; it has permitted a descent to the most degrading cults of the Draviclian races ; while at the same time it has ventured to rise from the most grovelling practices to the loftiest heights of philosophical speculation ; it has not hesitated to drink in thoughts from the very fountain of Truth, and owes not a little to Christianity itself. Strangest of all, it has dissipated the formidable organ- ization which for a long period confronted Brahmanism, and introduced doctrines subversive of Sacerdotalism. It has art- fully appropriated Buddhism, and gradually superseded that competing system by drawing its adherents within the pale of its own communion. Without doubt the most remarkable fact in the history of the interaction between Brahmanism and the mighty movement initiated by one of the greatest of this earth's teachers was the resolution of his teaching into Saivism and Vaishnavism. Whether both these systems in their present form preceded Buddhism may be doubtful. At any rate they co-existed with it for a time, and became greatly amplified and modified by its absorption.
This interchangeableness between Buddhism, Saivism, and Vaishnavism will be more fully explained in a future chapter. It will be sufficient at present to note that the Buddha had two distinct characters. In his first and earliest character he was the typical ascetic (Sramana), the great teacher of the power to be gained by self-suppression and by conquest of the passions. In his second, he was the great friend of the common people who advocated universal brotherhood, universal equality, and universal compassion for
^ A fish and a boar form two of the incarnations of Vishnu. The former is also the emblem of the Pandya kingdom in the South, and MinacI, the goddess worshipped in the great temple of Madura, is said to mean fish-ruler, though the Brahmans have converted it into ' fish- eyed ' (Mlnakshi).
H'lndfiis^n. General Observations. 59
all forms of animal life. In both these characters the personal god Siva and the incarnated Vishnu were his counterparts, and ultimately superseded him^. Siva was the Buddha in his as- cetical character. Vishnu was the Buddha in his character of a beneficent and unselfish lover and friend of the human race.
And as Saivism and Vaishnavism superseded Buddhism, so they became the chief constituents of modern Hinduism. All shades and subdivisions of Hindu sectarianism may be included under one or other of these two heads.
Nevertheless it is customary to speak of Hinduism as divided into five principal sects: i. Worshippers of Siva (Saivas). 2. Worshippers of Vishnu (Vaishnavas). 3. Wor- shippers of the female personifications of divine power, re- garded as the wives of the deities (Saktas). 4. Worshippers of Ganesa or Ganapati as god of luck and good fortune (Ganapatyas). 5. Worshippers of the sun (Sauras). Besides these five, a sixth called Tasupata (or, by Ananda-giri, Kapalika), found in the South of India, is occasionally added, though this is nothing but a subdivision of the Saivas. All these six sects are said by South-Indian Pandits to have been founded by Sankarac'arya, who is therefore often called Shan-mata-sthapaka, 'the establisher of six forms of doctrines.' In reality that great teacher was, as we have seen, utterly opposed to all sectarian ideas. In the Sahkara-vijaya of Ananda-giri (a work written by one of his disciples in the ninth or tenth century) he is described as having traversed India in every direction for the purpose of combating and refuting an immense number of sectarian systems which had taken root in the country. There were at that time, besides the worshippers of Siva and Vishnu, votaries of Brahma, of the Sun, Moon, Kuvera, Yama, Varuna, Sesha, and others innumerable. Many of these were extirpated through Saiikara's instru-
' There are clear traces that the great Vaishnava temple of Jagannath In Orissa was originally dedicated to some Buddhist tooth-relic.
6o Hinduism. General Observations.
mentality, and many have since disappeared ; but, curiously enough, it is alleged that out of pity to the present de- generate age (Kali-yuga), when men are incapable of apprehending the pure unity of the Godhead, Sankara al- lowed six sects to remain. It was only by degrees that the sectarian character of all but the first two disappeared.
The question then arises here : — What is the present idea implied by a Hindu sect, and how are we to explain its true relationship to the orthodox body from which it is supposed to be severed? It is clear from what has been already stated that every Hindu creed ought to be regarded as unorthodox which exalts favourite personal deities to the position of an eternal, supreme, self-existing God, in contra- vention of the dogma that even the highest divine person- alities are finite beings destined ultimately to be absorbed into the one infinite Brahma.
Saivism and Vaishnavism are undoubtedly in this respect the two principal offenders against orthodoxy; and in so offending they may justly be regarded as two vast sects. Since, however, Saivism and Vaishnavism constitute, so to speak, the very warp and woof of the later Hindu religion, and since it is possible to be a worshipper of Siva or Vishnu without being a sectarian, it will be better to apply the term 'sect' to separate religious communities within the pale of these two chief systems, organized and consolidated by particular teachers with the object of inculcating entire devotion towards, and exclusive dependence on either Siva or Vishnu, and securing through the instrumentality of one or other of these gods the welfare and salvation of every individual member of the society.
At the same time, it must be carefully noted that Hindu sectarianism is something more than the mere exclusive worship of a personal god. It implies more or less direct opposition to the orthodox philosophy of Brahmanism, and to its essential doctrine of the non-duality of spirit. We have
Hinduism. General Observations. 6 1
already seen, indeed, that vague pantheistic ideas may always be found lurking at the root of every variety of Hindu sec- tarian doctrine. Such ideas arc naturally inwoven into the very texture of every Hindu mind. But Hinduism bristles on all sides with contradictions, inconsistencies, and surprises ; and it is remarkable that the generally prevalent Brahmanical doctrine of the identification of the living personal soul of man with the one universal Soul of the universe is the one peculiar dogma which various sects of both Saivas and Vaishnavas — especially the latter — theoretically repudiate, dilute, or qualify. For indeed the soul of man if it strives to give expression to its feeling of complete and exclusive devotion to a personal deity as to a Creator and Saviour, cannot at the same moment assent to doctrines which de- stroy its own separate personality.
To mark this complete and exclusive devotion more clearly, and to bind each sect together by some common bond of union, a short form of words called a Mantra (for example, Otn Rdnidya namah, reverence to Rama), expressive of ex- clusive and absolute trust in the particular god worshipped as representing the Supreme Ruler of the world, is taught by each community and its repetition made a necessary condition of salvation through him.
Moreover, the privilege of imparting this Mantra is by each sect confined to a regular constituted order of men (Gurus). The communication of it (usually in a whisper) is called ini- tiation (diksha), and acquaintance with it is held to be essential to admission within the pale of the society. When any such system has been fully organized it is called a Sampradaya — a word meaning a particular body of traditionary doctrines handed down through a succession of teachers^.
' It may also be designated by such terms as Darsana or Mata — that is, particular views or opinions on religion or philosophy. The term Darsana, however, is more usually restricted to the six regular philoso- phical systems.
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62
Hmduism. General Observations.
As a- matter of fact the Sampradayas or separate religiouj denominations of the present day are nearly all mere sub- divisions of Vaishnavism. Not that Siva has been dethroned by Vishnu, or lost any of his importance as one of the twc chief deities of modern Hinduism. What is meant is that although all Hindus pay homage to Siva, to his Consort 01 Sakti, and to his two sons Ganesa and Skanda, few attach themselves to these deities as to personal benefactors — few seek to be initiated into their Mantras, or pray to them ex- clusively as to their personal creators and saviours.
Certainly no one, as far as I have been able to ascertain ever turns to any one of these gods, or invokes their in- tervention and assistance in the hour of death^. Similarlj all Hindus adore the Sun in their daily prayers, but ver} few in the present day ever worship him exclusively or ir what may be called a spirit of sectarianism. Several sect: of Sun-worshippers are known to have once existed and tc have had many adherents, but they have all now died out.
In reality the principle of faith and devotion as displayec towards personal gods could scarcely have taken deep roo in India except in connexion with the worship of a goc who descended upon earth as the child of earthly parent; for the promotion of man's welfare, and whose nature in hi; incarnations became quite as human as it was divine.
And here mark that the doctrine of incarnation amon^ the Hindus is in many important respects different from th( Christian idea. The Sanskrit language, which is the onb language of the Hindu religion and the only source of theo logical terms, has no exact equivalent for incarnation^. Thi common word is Avatara, which means 'descent.' Further
^ The names invoked at death are generally those of Rama andNarayana The late Dr. Burnell told me that he once witnessed the execution c thirteen criminals in India who were all Saivas, and yet all called oi the name of Rama before being hanged.
^ Unless it be compounds formed with deha, miirti, and sdkshat.
cfgfc fcefore, feRia tiois; ;ci fcoebe: tagh d ofeartli} jiartides.
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Hi)uirdsm. General Observations.
63
or
eoftlietwo leant is that, is Consort \ few attach lefactors-few ' to tliem it-
e to ascertain, okes tlieir iii'
. Similarly vers, but very kively or in
Several sects existed and to w died out n as displaye( iken deep root ship of a go( earthly parenti i nature divine, ination aeion^ ferentfromthf cb is the only source of theO'
cent; Forther
more, it must be borne in mind that intervening between the Supreme Being and these Avatfiras must be placed the forms of personal deities such as Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva — each of whom possesses a body composed, Hke human bodies, of gross, though divine and ethereal, particles ^ Strictly, therefore, the so-called incarnations, represented by heroes like Rama, ought to be regarded as incarnations of incarna- tions ; for they are the descent of portions of the essence of divine beings who already possess bodies composed of gross, though divine, particles, and who condescend by being born of earthly parents to assume bodies composed of human gross particles. It is true that such descents are sometimes at- tributed to the personal gods Siva and Brahma, and even to other gods such as Indra, Vayu, Sesha (for example, Arjuna and the heroes of the Maha-bharata are incarnations of various deities) ; but we must bear in mind that the only universally acknowledged and generally worshipped incarnations were those of Vishnu, as Rama son of Dasaratha, and Krishna son of Vasudeva. When once the feeling of affection for these two gods had rooted itself in the religious sense of the people, it rapidly gathered strength and dominated over every other feeling. The way of love and faith (bhakti-marga) as propounded in the Puranas and Tantras- superseded the other two ways of salvation — knowledge and works (jnana- marga and karma-marga).
It even triumphed over the power of caste ; for an en- thusiastic love of Rama or Krishna was theoretically a bond of union among human beings stronger than all social ties, and was incompatible with differences of rank or antagonisms of interest.
' See the account of the structure of the bodies of the gods at p. 28.
''■ Doubtless a form of the doctrine of faith maybe traced back to early times, but for its full development we must look to the Bhagavad-gitii, a comparatively modern episode of the IMaha-bharata, to the Puranas and Tantras, and to a scientific formulation of the doctrine in the Bhakti-sOtras of Sandilya probably about the twelfth century.
62 Hindtdsm. General Observations.
As a- matter of fact the Sampradayas or separate religious denominations of the present day are nearly all mere sub- divisions of Vaishnavism. Not that Siva has been dethroned by Vishnu, or lost any of his importance as one of the two chief deities of modern Hinduism. What is meant is that, although all Hindus pay homage to Siva, to his Consort or Sakti, and to his two sons Ganesa and Skanda, few attach themselves to these deities as to personal benefactors — few seek to be initiated into their Mantras, or pray to them ex- clusively as to their personal creators and saviours.
Certainly no one, as far as I have been able to ascertain, ever turns to any one of these gods, or invokes their in- tervention and assistance in the hour of death ^. Similarly all Hindus adore the Sun in their daily prayers, but very few in the present day ever worship him exclusively or in what may be called a spirit of sectarianism. Several sects of Sun-worshippers are known to have once existed and to have had many adherents, but they have all now died out.
In reality the principle of faith and devotion as displayed towards personal gods could scarcely have taken deep root in India except in connexion with the worship of a god who descended upon earth as the child of earthly parents for the promotion of man's welfare, and whose nature in his incarnations became quite as human as it was divine.
And here mark that the doctrine of incarnation among the Hindus is in many important respects different from the J Christian idea. The Sanskrit language, which is the only language of the Hindu religion and the only source of theo- logical terms, has no exact equivalent for incarnation'^. The common word is Avatara, which means 'descent.' Further-
^ The names invoked at death are generally those of Rama andNarayana. The late Dr. Rurnell told me that he once witnessed the execution of thirteen criminals in India who were all Saivas, and yet all called on the name of Rama before being hanged.
^ Unless it be compounds formed with deha^ milrli, and sdkshdt.
Hinduism. General Observations. d-^
more, it must be borne in mind that intervening between the Supreme Being and these Avataras must be placed the forms of personal deities such as Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva — each of whom possesses a body composed, like human bodies, of gross, though divine and ethereal, particles^. Strictly, therefore, the so-called incarnations, represented by heroes like Rama, ought to be regarded as incarnations of incarna- tions ; for they are the descent of portions of the essence of divine beings who already possess bodies composed of gross, though divine, particles, and who condescend by being born of earthly parents to assume bodies composed of human gross particles. It is true that such descents are sometimes at- tributed to the personal gods Siva and Brahma, and even to other gods such as Indra, Vayu, Sesha (for example, Arjuna and the heroes of the Maha-bharata are incarnations of various deities) ; but we must bear in mind that the only universally acknowledged and generally worshipped incarnations were those of Vishnu, as Rama son of Dasaratha, and Krishna son of Vasudeva. When once the feeling of affection for these two gods had rooted itself in the religious sense of the people, it rapidly gathered strength and dominated over every other feeling. The way of love and faith (bhakti-marga) as propounded in the Puranas and Tantras- superseded the other two ways of salvation — knowledge and works (juana- marga and karma-marga).
It even triumphed over the power of caste ; for an en- thusiastic love of Rama or Krishna w'as theoretically a bond of union among human beings stronger than all social ties, and was incompatible with differences of rank or antagonisms of interest.
' See the account of the structure of the bodies of the gods at p. 28.
"^ Doubtless a form of the doctrine of faith maybe traced back to early times, but for its full development we must look to the Bhagavad-gfta, a comparatively modern episode of the Maha-bharata, to the Puranas and Tantras, and to a scientific formulation of the doctrine in the Bhakti-sutras of Sanililya probably about the twelfth century.
64 Hindtdsni. General Observations.
In fact the leaders of religious thought in India were all disciples in the school of the great Buddha, to the extent, at least, of imitating his wisdom by preaching religious equality and fraternity. They saw that their popularity as reformers depended on their attracting adherents from all ranks, high and low. Hence, every great religious leader proclaimed the complete social equality of all who enrolled themselves under his leadership. Buddha was the son of a petty prince, but addressed himself to the populace. In the same way Vishnu, in his descent as Krishna, though of the kingly caste, was brought up among the common people. But just as Buddhism ultimately fell back into Brahmanism, so has every movement in the direction of liberty, equality, and fraternity ended by a return, more or less com- plete, to the original condition of subjection to Brahmanical authority and obedience to the law of social distinctions.
Practically, therefore, we must regard Vaishnavism as the principal home of Hindu religious sectarianism. All the chief modern sects have resulted more from differences of opinion between various schools of Vaishnavas, than from an- tagonism between Saivism and Vaishnavism. Nor are Saivism and Vaishnavism in their essence antagonistic systems. They represent different lines of religious thought ; such lines ex- pressing a contrast rather than an opposition. So far indeed from any necessary opposition between the systems, they are a necessary complement of each other. For the worship of the composite deity Rudra-Siva is nothing but the expression of the awe felt by human beings in the presence of the two mutually complementary forces of disintegration and reinte- gration ; while the worship of the personal god Vishnu in his descents upon earth in human form is nothing but the ex- pression of the very natural interest felt by man in his own preservation and in the working of the physical forces which resist dissolution.
Certainly in the present day Saivas and Vaishnavas are
Hinduism. General Observations. 65
tolerant of each other's creeds, both appeaHng to the Puranas as their special Bible, and each acknowledging the gods of the other as proper objects of worship. This is remarkably- illustrated by the fact that in some parts of the country a god called Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Siva) is worshipped, who represents the union of the two divine personalities in one. There is a long hymn in praise of this twofold deity in the Hari-vansa (181st chapter), and images of him may be seen here and there in Southern India. For example, in the great temple at Madura a fine carving was pointed out to me which proved to be a representation of Sahkara-Narayana ( = Hari-Hara) K One side of the figure represents half the body of Vishnu with a hand holding a Sahkha, while the other side is an image of Siva surmounted by half a head-dress twisted into a matted coil with the lunar crescent conspicuous on it. Then again, wherever in any city a large temple has been erected to Siva, a similar temple dedicated to Vishnu is sure to be conspi- cuous near at hand. Indeed the shrines of the two gods are not unfrequently found in close juxtaposition within the same sacred enclosure. For instance, on the hill of Parvati (wife of Siva) near Poona, and in the enclosure of her temple, I saw a shrine of Vishnu, another of his vehicle Garuda, and images of nearly every deity of the Hindu Pantheon 2.
Nor can any student of the Maha-bharata and Puranas doubt the intcrchangeableness of the functions of Siva and Vishnu, or fail to perceive that each divine personality has a tendency to blend or merge in the other. In the Lihga- purana (I. i8ff.) both Brahma and Vishnu are said to spring from Siva. On the other hand, in the Maha-bhfirata (Vana- parvan 499 ff. and Anusasana-p. 6806 ff.) Brahma is described
' In the South of India a legend is current which makes Vishnu assume the form of a fascinating woman (mohini) and so connect himself with Siva. By Saktas Vishnu is often held to be female.
^ So also in the precincts of the temple of Hanuman at Kaira I saw a shrine of Siva and nearly every other god ordinarily worshipped,
F
66 Hi minis m. General Observations.
as springing from the navel of Vishnu when he was lying in placid repose on the serpent of infinity, and enjoying the most perfect serenity of mind ^ ; whilst Siva or Rudra is said to have been produced from Vishnu's forehead when his spirit happened one day to be roused to anger.
Again, Vishnu, speaking of himself (Santi-parvan 13 140, etc.), says : ' I am the soul of all the worlds. It was myself whom I formerly worshipped as Rudra. If I were not to worship the boon -bestowing Siva, no one would worship myself. He who knows him knows me ; he who loves him loves me.' ('Yas tarn vetti sa marn vetti yo 'nu tarn sa hi mam anu.') This, in fact, is the true explanation of the homage which each member of the Triad occasionally pays to the other.
Still it must be admitted that Saivism and Vaishnavism are quite distinct systems, and that each sect is inclined to lay an exaggerated stress on its own particular doctrines.
In ancient times these differences not unfrequently led to rancorous antagonism, and sometimes even to violent con- flicts. This was especially the case in the South, where Saivism generally triumphed over and displaced Vaishnavism 2. Even in the present day, when universal toleration is the rule, Saivas and Vaishnavas like to maintain their distinct cha- racteristics, which they exhibit conspicuously to the eye by distinct marks on their foreheads (called tilaka, pundra, and, in tlic South of India, nama or gandha).
That of the Saivas consists of three horizontal strokes (tri- pundra) made with the white ashes of burnt substances (vibhuti), to represent the destroying character of their god Siva ^ and
One reason I often had given to me in India for the present merging of Brahma in Vishnu was that Brahma sprang from the body of Vishnu. " 1 noticed many traces of the conflict in the South ; for example, Vaishnava sculptures have been left on the Gopuras in the Saiva temple of Tanjore.
' The ashes doubtless denote that the body must ultimately be re- duced to ashes.
Hinduism. General Observations. 67
that of the Vaishnavas is an upright mark (urdiiva-pundra) made with bright red, yellow, and white colouring substances (the white called Gopl-c'andana ^), to represent the foot-print of their human and humane god Vishnu.
Again, it is important to note that both Saivas and Vaish- navas differ in the mode of branding their breasts, arms, and other parts of their bodies with the distinctive marks of their sect. Such marks are burnt in with red-hot stamps, some- times made of gold. In the case of Saivas they represent the weapons and symbols of Siva, such as the trident and the liiiga ; while the favourite brands of Vishnu are the discus, the club, and the conch-shell. This practice was severely denounced by Sahkara^ but apparently with little effect.
In regard to rosaries, the rosary (japa-mala) used by Saivas is a simple string of 32 rough berries (or that number doubled) of the Rudraksha tree (ELxocarpus Ganitrus), while that of the Vaishnavas is made of the wood of the sacred Tulasi (Tulsl) shrubj and generally consists of 108 beads. Such rosaries may be worn as necklaces, though their chief use is to be employed as an aid in the repetition of the names and epithets of the deity or in the recitation of prayers. Occasional varieties in the material and form of the rosaries may be noticed ^ ; for example, Saiva ascetics sometimes carry rosaries formed of the teeth of dead bodies (danta-mala), or sling serpents round their necks for necklaces. On the other hand, Vaishnava rosaries are occasionally but rarely made of lotus-seeds (ka- malaksha).
But the most important difference to be noted between Saivas and Vaishnavas is the use they make of idols, images, and symbols. Siva, we must remember, is a less human
^ This is said to be the soil of a pool near Dvarika in which the GopTs drowned themselves on learninjj of the death of Krishna.
^ The Sankara-vijaya shows how Sai'ikara offered the most strenuous opposition to this practice of branding, stigmatizing it as a heretical and ridiculous practice.
•' See especially my book * Modern India and the Indians,' p. io8.
F Z
6S Hinduism. General Observations.
and far more mystical deity than the incarnated Vishnu. The character in which he is most frequently worshipped and propitiated is that of an omnipotent, terrible God, granting new life to all created things, but only through death and disintegration. Hence he is not represented by the image of a man, but by a mystic symbol^ — perhaps the best symbol of delegated creative power— which cannot be dressed, deco- rated or fed with food or put to sleep like a human being, but is supposed to be in a condition of perpetual heat and excitement, and requires to be cooled and appeased by constant showers of cold Ganges water, and cooling Bilva (Bll or Bel) leaves applied throughout the day by a per- petual succession of worshippers^. It is remarkable, too, that in cases where food is offered to the god Siva, it is not afterwards eaten by his votaries (except in certain special localities), for the simple reason that inauspicious (amarigala) ideas are supposed to be connected with his office of causing death 3.
On the other hand, since Vishnu is god in his more human and humane aspect, sympathizing with men's trials and condescending to be born of human parents, he is usually represented by the complete image of a well-formed human being — generally that of Krishna or Rama — which is every day roused from a supposed nocturnal slumber, dressed, decorated with gold and jewels, bathed, fed with offerings
' That is, by the liiiga or image of the distinctive organ of the male sex (the phallus), never in the mind of a Saiva connected with indecent ideas nor with sexual love, though impure practices have certainly been introduced in connexion with the worship of Siva's wife. In fact, sexual passion is chiefly associated with the worship of Vishnu, as Krishna. It is curious that X'aishnavas dislike the Saiva liiiga and yet allow the most impure and indecent representations on the walls of their temples.
* Another mode of worship is by pradakshina or circumambulation, keeping the right side towards the object worshipped. In many Liiiga shrines a space is left for this kind of homage.
» The precept is, * Leaves, flowers, fruit, and water must not be taken after being offered to Siva.' But at the great temple of Bhuvanesvara and a few other places an exception is made.
Hinduism. General Observations. 69
of cooked and uncooked grain, sweetmeats and fruits, un- dressed and put to sleep again like an ordinary man, while the remains of the food offered (prasada) are eagerly con- sumed by the priests and attendants \
And here I may point out that a great distinction is to be made in regard to the comparative sanctity of different kinds of symbols and images. Some are called svayambhu, that is existing spontaneously, and are of their own nature pervaded by the essence of the deity. These are either not carved at all, or very slightly moulded into shape. They are merely rough stones or rocks supposed to have descended direct from heaven or to have appeared miraculously on the soil. They are the most sacred of all material objects of adoration, and when discovered, temples are built over them. The most usual idols of this kind are stones supposed to represent the Linga of Siva, and when shrines are built round them, a Yoni is usually (though not always) added.
Not less sacred than these rough stones are certain small pebbles found in rivers and polished by the action of the water 2. Of these the pebbles representing the Linga of Siva, called Bana-lihga or Vana-lihga, and apparently of white quartz, are found in the bed of the Narbada river. The black pebbles representing Vishnu or Krishna, called Sala- grama (popularly sal-gram), and generally containing am- monites imbedded in the stone, are chiefly found in the river Gandaki. Both kinds of pebble are employed in the domestic worship of Siva and Vishnu known as Paiicayatana-puja (to be afterwards described) and performed by householders in their own houses. Both are held to be of their own nature pervaded by the special presence of the deity and need no
' This will account for the fact that few villagers can afford to keep a temple dedicated to Krishna. The vestments, ornaments, decorations, and paraphernalia needed are too expensive ; whereas all the requisites for the worship of Siva are a stone linga, bilva leaves, and water.
■^ Some of them appear to be artificially rounded and polished.
•JO Hinduism, Gmeral Observations.
consecration. Offerings made to these pebbles — such for in- stance as Bilva leaves laid on the white stone of Vishnu — are believed to confer extraordinary merit.
A second form of idol is wholly artificial. This is carved by masons or sculptors and not held sacred until the Brah- mans have consecrated it by long ceremonies and the repe- tition of Vedic texts. When such idols have been placed in shrines they can be looked at by an unbeliever, even though the consecration they have received is supposed to have filled them with the essence of the god they represent. Artificial idols and symbols of this kind are manufactured in large numbers in holy cities, not so much for general worship as for votive offerings to be set up with the customary form of dedication (pratishtha) in the galleries or vestibules of temples or under sacred trees, or to be kept as objects of adoration in the private rooms of houses.
Pious persons reckon it a work of great religious merit to cause such idols and symbols to be made, or to purchase them for dedication. I noticed thousands for sale in the streets of Benares.
Some of the Lirigas were carved out of stone, and some made of glass. Serpents are occasionally carved round them, just as the images of Siva in human form are often ornamented with serpents.
One other difference between Saivism and Vaishnavism remains to be noted. Each system has a heaven of its own, that of Siva being called Kailasa ; that of Vishnu being known as Vaikuntha. The former is supposed to be located in the Himalaya mountains; the position of the latter is not so distinctly fixed, but is believed by some to be in the mythical northern peak of Mount Meru^. To these heavens the
' The temple of Srlrangam at Trichinopoly is supposed to be a counterpart of Vaikuntha, and the excavated temple at Ellora is a counterpart of Kailasa.
Hinduism. General Observatio7is, 71
faithful worshippers of Siva or Vishnu are respectively trans- ported. There amid eternal snows and inaccessible crags they are thought to be safe from future transmigration. There, too, they may attain to the highest pinnacle of beati- fication, not so much by absolute absorption (sayujya) into the one supreme spirit according to the Vedanta doctrine (see p. 41) — for such complete union would involve loss of per- sonality— but rather by dwelling in the same abode with their god (salokya), by nearness to him (samTpya), by assimilation to his likeness (sarupya).
Before concluding these general observations it may be well to note that a theory has gained acceptance in some quarters that the cultus of the god Siva in its grosser forms, as for example in the homage paid to the Liiiga and to demons, has been borrowed from pre-Aryan races and non-Aryan aboriginal tribes. Even the cultus of various forms of Vishnu is held by some to be traceable to the same source. But the explanations I have given will I hope tend to show that Siva and Vishnu are both Brahmanical gods, though they have been often made to do duty for local deities, and have fre- quently opened their arms to embrace objects of worship outside the true circle of Brahmanism.
We now pass on to a more detailed account of the later Hindu system, and for the sake of perspicuity I purpose treating of the various phases of Hindu doctrine and worship under ten principal topics : — i. Saivism, or devotion to the god Siva as originally an impersonation of the destructive and reconstructive forces of nature in male form. 2. Vaishnavism, or devotion to the god Vishnu as originally an imperson- ation of the conservative and preservative forces of nature in male form. 3. Saktism, or devotion to the wives of Siva and Vishnu as impersonations of the same forces of nature in female form. 4. Worship of tutelary deities who protect from misfortune and evil influences. 5. Demon-worship and spirit- worship (Bhuta-puja). 6. Hero-worship and man-worship.
72
Hindfiisvi. General Observations.
7. Ancestor- worship. 8. Animal- worship. 9. Plant-worship and Tree-worship. 10. Worship of natural objects, both those which move, such as the sun, moon, rivers, etc., and those which are fixed and immovable (jada), such as rocks, stocks, stones, etc.
Six other topics will follow: — i. The Hindu religion in ancient family-life. 2. The Hindu religion in modern family- life. 3. Hindu fasts, festivals, and holy days. 4. Hindu temples, shrines, and sacred places. 5. Hindu caste in rela- tion to industrial occupations. 6. Modern Hindu Theism.
It may be well to note here, for the benefit of those to whom such expressions as Saiva, Vaishnava, etc. may appear strange, that it is usual in Sanskrit to convert a substantive into an adjective, by modifying or lengthening the vowel of the first syllable. Hence Saiva and Vaishnava are merely the adjective forms of Siva and Vishnu.
CHAPTER IV.
^<
aivisvt.
Saivism, as we have already seen, may be defined as the setting aside of the triune equality of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, and the merging of the former two gods in the god Siva. But it is also more than this. It is the exaltation of Siva (whether regarded as one person or as associated with a consort) to the position of a Supreme Being, infinite, eternal, and exempt from subjection to the law of ultimate absorp- tion into the Universal Spirit. It is his identification with Brahma as well as with Brahma ; with the one impersonal Spirit as well as with the one personal God ; with the Atman and I\Iaya of the Vedanta philosophy; with the Purusha and Prakriti of the Sarikhya system ; with the male and female generative energies operating in the Universe ; with every conceivable force and form in nature.
Yet it ought to be clearly understood that the identifica- tion of Siva with the one impersonal Spirit of the Universe is rarely asserted categorically by Saiva sectarians ; for it must always be borne in mind that the very meaning of Saivism is exclusive devotion to a personal god Siva, who, unlike the impersonal spiritual Being, possesses a bodily form, and can think, feel, and act. In entering, therefore, on the subject of Saivism we arc passing from pantheistic to thcistic ideas.
The Saiva bible or supposed inspired authority for this elevation of the god Siva to the highest position in the Hindu system must be sought for among the eighteen Puranas. These writings are more generally in favour of the supremacy
74 Saivism.
of Vishnu, but a certain number, such as the Liiiga, Siva, Kurma and Skanda Puranas, make Siva supreme \
We have already pointed out that the idea of a Tri-murti or triple embodiment and personification of the phenomena and powers of Nature was adumbrated in the Veda and fully developed in the Maha-bharata.
In the Veda special homage is given to three gods who are the representative deities of the three worlds and the ele- ments they contain, (i) To the god of Fire (Agni), who is the god on the earth. (2) To the god of Rain associated with the gods of Storm (Indra-Rudra), who are the gods in the atmosphere. (3) To the Sun-god (Surya), who is the god in the heavens. In mythological Brahmanism — of which the Maha-bharata is the chief exponent — these three Vedic gods pass into Brahma the creator, Rudra-Siva the destroyer and recreator, and Vishnu the preserver. But the act of the Creator was a single act. Once completed, it was liable to receive scant recognition at the hands of the beings created. And, as a matter of fact, the worship of Brahma fell into desuetude.
On the other hand, the acts of disintegration, reintegration, and maintenance of being were continuous acts of the deepest and most momentous interest to the whole human race, and it was only to be expected that the homage paid to the deities who presided over these operations should increase in intensity and culminate in a mountain of superstition. For, indeed, three remarkable phenomena could not fail to impress themselves on the most superficial observers of the processes of nature. First, that mysterious and awe-inspiring forces are ever at work for the disintegration of every material object in the universe ; secondly, that vivifying forces are
' The colossal sculpture of the Tri-murti in the caves of Elephanta, excavated twelve or thirteen centuries ago, consisting of three grand heads in high relief, represents Brahma in the centre, Vishnu on the right, and Siva on the left.
Saivism. 7 5
ever being exerted for the reintegration of material entities through the disintegration of other entities ; thirdly, that every existing material entity is maintained in existence by the agency of sustaining forces which help it to resist the action of the forces of dissolution. In short, it was clear that the three processes of disintegration, reintegration, and main- tenance of being are perpetually recurring in an eternal cycle —that each follows on the other and that each is necessary to the other.
Now, it might have been expected that the authors of Hindu mythology would have placed these three distinct processes under the control of three distinct deities. But so close was believed to be the connexion between the work of disintegration and that of reintegration that both were as- signed to the presidency of one divine personification, who, in this two-fold character of Destroyer and Re-constructor, ought properly to be designated by the composite name Rudra-Siva. For it is only as Rudra that he is the lord of Death and the active agent in dissolution ; and it is only as Siva, 'the auspicious,' that he reconstructs after destruction.
And here at the outset it is important to note that, in his character of both Rudra and Siva, this god enjoys a cultus which reaches much further back than that of Vishnu the maintainer and preserver. Of the two deities Siva is un- doubtedly the more ancient. He was the first to receive special adoration; and although in the present day he has fewer exclusive adorers than the god Vishnu, his worship is even now more generally extended (compare note, p. 78).
The name of Vishnu occurs, it is true, in the Rig-veda, but only as a secondary designation of the Sun, that luminary being better known by other more important names — such as Surya, Savitri, Aditya.
On the other hand, Rudra appears quite early in the Veda with a well-recognized and well-marked personality of his own. He is an important deity, whose anger is to be dreaded
^6 Saivism.
and whose favour is to be propitiated. Probably the first office or function connected with him was that of directing and controlling the rage of the howling storms^. As god of gale and tempest he is father of the destructive storm-winds, who are also called Rudras, and generally identified with the Maruts. And in this character Rudra is closely connected with the Vedic Rain-god (Indra), and with the still more liighly esteemed Vedic deity Fire (Agni), which, as a destroy- ing agent, rages and crackles like the roaring tempest. He is also nearly related to Time (Kala), the all-consumer, and indeed afterwards identified with him-. But he has also a more agreeable aspect even in the Veda. He is not merely the awful and inauspicious god whose thousand shafts bring death or disease on men and cattle ^ He is present in those health-giving winds which chase away noxious vapours. He is addressed as a healer, as a benefactor, as a benevolent and auspicious being; the epithet Siva being applied to him in the Veda euphemistically as a title rather than as a name.
Again, in the later Vedic period his personality becomes still more intensified, and his name, attributes, and functions infinitely amplified, varied, and extended. For example, in the Vajasaneyi-samhita of the Yajur-veda (XVI. i, etc.) there is a w^ell-known hymn or litany called the Satarudriya ad- dressed to Rudra in his hundred aspects and surrounded by his countless host of attendants. In this hymn — a hymn which is of the greatest interest, because constantly used in the pre- sent day — he is described as possessing many contradictory, ncongruous, grotesque, and wholly ungodlike attributes ; for example, he is a killer and destroyer ; he is terrible, fierce (ugra), inauspicious ; he is a deliverer and saviour ; he causes
' The root rud meaning to roar or howl.
* In tlie Kailfisa cave at Ellora 1 noticed that Siva in his character of Kala was represented as a skeleton.
' Death is always connected in the Hindu mind with something in- auspicious (amangala) and impure.
1
Saivisin. 7 7
happiness, and prevents disease ; he has a healing and aus- picious body (siva tanuh) ; he is yellow- haired, brown- coloured, copper-coloured, ruddy, tall, dwarfish ; he has braided locks (kapardin), wears the sacred thread, and is clothed in a skin ; he is blue-necked and thousand-eyed ; he dwells in the mountains, and is the owner of troops (gana-pati) of servants who traverse the earth obeying his orders ; he is ruler and controller of a thousand Rudras who are described as fierce and ill-formed (virupa) ; he has a hundred bows and a thousand quivers ; he is the general of vast armies ; he is lord of ghosts, goblins, and spirits ; of beasts, horses, and dogs ; of trees, shrubs, and plants ; he causes the fall of leaves ; he is lord of the Soma-juice ; he is patron of thieves and robbers\ and is himself a thief, robber, and deceiver; he presides over carpenters, chariot-makers, blacksmiths, archi- tects, huntsmen ; he is present in towns and houses, in rivers and lakes, in woods and roads, in clouds and rain, in sun- shine and lightning, in wind and storm, in stones, dust, and earth.
If then this great deity was distinguished even in the Vedic period by so great a variety of attributes and was held capable of so many functions, it was only to be expected that the plasticity and all-comprehensiveness of his godhead should have increased with the advance of time. It was only natural, too, that the desire to propitiate him should have be- come more generally diffused. His terrific and ungodlike character was, therefore, kept well in the background, and his epithet *the blessed or auspicious one (Siva),' who brought life out of death, who recreate'd after dissolution, passed into his principal name.
^ In the drama called Mricchakatika some burglars invoke Skanda son of Siva as their patron deity. At present nearly all the degrading characteristics of the god have been transferred to the form of his consort called Kali. That goddess is to this day the patron and guardian of thieves, robbers, Thugs, murderers, and every kind of infamous rascal.
78 ^aivism.
Hence also Siva became to his worshippers the great god (Maha-deva) and lord of the universe (jagat-pitri, visva-natha), who, although he has numerous forms, is generally worshipped under one mystical shape— a plain upright stone, the sign or symbol (lihga) of generative and creative power — scattered in millions of shrines over every part of India ^ And hence, too, it came to pass that, in the end, this so-called great god was often identified with the one universal, all-pervading, self- existent Spirit of Brahmanical philosophy ^.
Yet it is remarkable that with the increasing tendency to exalt the deity Siva to the highest pinnacle in the Hindu system, the desire to intensify his more human character and to multiply those inferior and degrading attributes which de- prive him of all title to be called a god at all, increased also. In the later Indian scriptures he has 1008 recognized names (all enumerated in the Siva-purana LXIX, Anusasana-parvan XVII), besides countless local appellations and a corporeal existence almost as anthropomorphic as that of Vishnu.
It is true that the god Siva never passed through the pro- cesses of birth, childhood, manhood, or any of the stages of a recognized human existence in the way that Rama and Krishna did ^ yet he has his local incarnations, and, irre- spectively of these, a distinct personality of his own, and a biography capable of being written with more precision than that of Vishnu, by putting together the allusions and descrip- tions in the Epic poems and Puranas.
In the first place, with regard to his supposed residence, wc arc informed in these writings that his abode is Kailasa in the Himalaya, which is also that of his countless troops
' The number of Liiigas in India is estimated at three krores ( ^ 30 millions).
' Sayan.!, the great commentator on the Rig-veda, in the opening prayer to Siva (identified with the Supreme) asserts that the Veda was his breath (u<f(^hvasitam).
' Only a few local South-Indian legends make him go through human births.
^aivism. 79
(Ganas) of servants^, as well as of Kuvcra, god of wealth, who is in a similar manner surrounded by his attendants the Yakshas. This mountain-residence is, as we have already- seen, the special heaven of Siva, just as Vaikuntha is of Vishnu. Thither his worshippers hope to be ultimately transported, and there he lives with his wife ParvatI (also called Durga, Kali, Uma, RhavanT, Satl, etc.), with the divine hero Vlra- bhadra, who is a manifestation of his own energy, and with his two sons Skanda and Ganesa. The latter control Siva's troops, leading some to battle against evil demons, and re- straining others who are themselves mischievous imps and would turn the whole world into a scene of confusion unless kept in check ^. It is probable that in surrounding the god Rudra-Siva with armies of demons and impish attendants, and making his sons lead and control them, Hindu mytholo- gists merely gave expression to an idea inveterate in the Indian mind, that all disease, destruction, and dissolution are the result of demoniacal agency.
With regard to the bodily form, mode of life, and behaviour attributed to Siva in his later character of lord of Kailasa, it is not surprising that these should to some extent be bor- rowed from the ancient description of him in the Satarudriya hymn before quoted. But many new and supernatural fea- tures symbolical of his later functions and actions are added.
In the first place, in regard to his corporeal aspect, he has sometimes five faces (Pauc'anana)^ sometimes one face, and
* In the temple at Madura I saw a representation of Siva borne on one of the Ganas. Some of his more personal attendants have special names, such as Nandin (often confounded with his vehicle the bull, see p. 8l), Bhringin, and Tandu, the latter being the original teacher of dancing.
- It must be borne in mind that the troops of Siva are represented as addicted to strong drink as well as to other excesses, and in this respect their master Siva sets them an example ; see pp. 84, 85.
^ It is possible that the five faces symbolize the five schools of the Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sama, Taittiriya, and Vajasaneyin), or perhaps the five Pathas (Samhita, Pada, Krama, Jata, and Ghana), or rather perhaps the five Gayatrls. No one in India could give me any good explanation
•/y
So Saivism.
always three eyes, which are thought to denote his insight into past, present, and future time.
The third eye is in his forehead, and a moon's crescent above it marks the measuring of time by months, while a serpent round his neck denotes the endless cycle of recurring years, and a second necklace of skulls with numerous other serpents about his person^ symbolizes the eternal revolution of ages, and the successive dissolution and regeneration of the races of mankind. His body is generally covered with ashes, and his hair thickly matted together, and gathered above his forehead into a coil, so as to project like a horn. On the top of it he bears the Ganges, the rush of which he intercepted in its descent from Vishnu's foot, that the earth might not be crushed by the weight of the falling stream. His complexion is sometimes white ^, from the re- flection of the snows of Kailasa, sometimes dark, from his identification with the dark destroyer Time (Kala). His throat is blue, from the stain of the deadly poison which would have destroyed the world had not Siva in compassion
of their meaning. I noticed that many images of Buddha in India and Ceylon had five rays of light issuing from the head, or a five-headed serpent expanded over it.
' Serpents, as we have seen, are associated with both Siva and Vishnu. The latter, as is well known, sleeps on a serpent, and I have often seen Liiigas in the South with a canopy formed of a five-headed serpent. Images of Krishna and of Buddha are also so represented. Tlie intcrchangeableness of Buddhism, Saivism, and Vaishnavism is everywhere apparent.
■'' There is a legend that Siva appeared in the Kali age, for the good of the IJrahmans, as Sveta ' the white one,' and that he had four dis- ciples, to all of whom the epithet Sveta is applied. Possibly the attribu- tion of a while complexion to Siva may be due to the fact that the Hrahmans of Cashmere, who are almost as fair as Europeans, were the first worshippers of Siva. Then as his cultus passed southwards the god naturally received a complexion more in keeping with that of his wor- shippers. Or it may be that white and black, like day and night, sym- bolized the close connexion and succession of the destroying and regenerative principles. Siva's wife ParVatI is also often called Gaurl, the pale-coloured.
Sak'isni. 8 1
for the human race undertaken to drink It up, on Its pro- duction at the churning of the ocean. He rides a white bull (called Nandi), images of which are often placed outside his shrines and probably typify generative energy. He is sometimes represented clothed in a deer-skin, sometimes in the skin of a tiger alleged to have been formerly killed by him when created by the magical arts of some Rishis who tried to destroy the god, because his beauty had attracted the amorous glances of their wives. Sometimes, again, he appears wearing an elephant's skin which had belonged to a demon of immense power named Gaya, whom he con- quered and slew. As Siva is constantly engaged in battle with mighty demons (such as Pura, Tripura, Andhaka), all of whom he fought and slew, he is armed with special weapons, suited to his warlike needs ; for example, he carries a trisula or three-pronged trident (also called Pinaka), thought by some to denote his combining in his own person the three attributes of Creator, Destroyer, and Regenerator ; a bow called Ajagava, a thunderbolt (vajra), an axe, and a non- descript weapon called Khatvanga, consisting of a kind of staff with transverse pieces surmounted by a skull. He also holds in his hand a noose (pasa) for binding his enemies^ and a kind of rattle or drum, shaped like an hour-glass, called Damaru, which he uses as a musical instrument to keep time while dancing.
It is clear from all this symbolism that the god Siva, as depicted in the later Hindu scriptures, assumes a very be- wildering and confusing variety of personalities at different times. His functions, as indicated by his 1008 names (see p. 106), are innumerable and his nature all-comprehensive. Yet an attempt may be made to disentangle the confusion by pointing out that there are really five chief characters of the god which stand out prominently from his general portraiture and are capable of being brought out into definite relief.
I. In the first place, he is, as we have seen, the impersonation
G
82 Saivis77t.
of the dissolving and disintegrating powers and processes oF nature. These ought really to be regarded as set in action by a beneficent being performing a necessary operation, but in the later phases of Hinduism the idea of dissolution is invested with terror. Siva himself is converted into a fierce universal destroyer (Sarva-bhuta-hara), who annihilates at the end of every great age (kalpa) not only men and all created things, but good and evil demons, and even Brahma, Vishnu, and all the inferior gods. He is then called Rudra, Mahakala, Hara, Anala (Fire), &c. One legend makes him wear the bones and skulls of the gods as ornaments and garlands.
Another legend describes how at the end of one of the early ages of the universe he burnt up the gods by a flash from his central eye, and afterwards rubbed their ashes upon his body ; whence the use of ashes is considered of great importance in his worship. Another legend accounts for the use of Rudraksha berries in the rosaries of Siva by describing how he once let fall some tears of rage which became con- verted into these seeds. Their connexion with Siva-worship is probably due to their roughness and to their possessing five divisions corresponding to the god's five faces.
It is easy to see how it came to pass that the god in this later character is believed to delight in destruction for its own sake. He is called Smasana-vasin, 'dweller in burial- places.' Cemeteries and burning-grounds are his favourite haunts ; imps and demons (bhutas and pisacas) are his ready servants ; ferocity and irascibility on the slightest provocation constitute his normal condition of mind. For example, on one occasion, when the sage Daksha omitted to invite him and his wife SatI to a great sacrifice at which all the gods were guests, he without the slightest hesitation decapitated the unfortunate sage and replaced his head by that of a ram. So again a sculpture in the caves of Elephanta represents him with eight arms in the act of immolating a child. In this character he is often called Bhairava, the terrible one, Vira-
i
Sah'ism. 83
bhadra being sometimes identified with him. But it should be noted that in the present day all these terrible attributes are generally transferred from the male deity to his feminine counterpart in the forms of Durga and Kali.
II. In the second place, Siva is the impersonation of the eternal reproductive power of Nature, perpetually reintegrating after disintegration (whence his name Bhuta-bhavana). It is especially in this personality that he is called ' the eternally blessed one,' 'the causer of blessings' (Siva, Sada-Siva^ Sari- kara, and Sambhu), and it is in this character that he is now generally worshipped all over India under the well-known and often misunderstood symbol of the Liiiga^ (see note to p. 68).
III. In the third place, Siva is the great typical ascetic and self-mortificr (Yogi, Tapasvl), who has attained the highest perfection in meditation and austerity (whence his names Mahatapah, MahayogT). In this character he appears quite naked (Dig-ambara), with only one face, like an ordinary human being, with ash-besmeared body and matted hair (whence his name Dhurjati), sitting in profound meditation under an Asvattha tree ( = Pippala or Pipal), and often, like the con- templative Buddha, under a canopy formed by a serpent's hcad^. There he is supposed to remain passionless, motion- less, immovable, as the trunk of a tree (sthanu), and perhaps rooted to the same spot for millions of years.
Another legend describes how on one occasion Siva, when engaged in a long course of asceticism, scorched the god of love (Kama-deva) to ashes by a flash of rage from his central eye, because that deity attempted to inflame him with passion for his consort Parvatl.
' I have already pointed out that although the Liiiga is regarded as highly objectionable in the eyes of Europeans and is denounced by missionaries as 'an abominable symbol,' it is never by Saivas connected with the passion of love. See note, p. 68. This passion belongs to Vaishnavism rather than to Saivism.
^ The serpent is often five-headed, which appears to have some con- nection with Siva's five faces. Compare note 3, p. 79.
G 2
g^ ^aivism.
It is in this character that he teaches men by his own example the power to be acquired by mortification of the body, suppression of the passions, and abstract contempla- tion, as leading to the loftiest spiritual knowledge and ulti- mately effecting union with himself in Kailasa.
IV. In the fourth place, the god Siva is a contemplative philosopher and learned sage, the revealer of Grammar to the greatest of Indian grammarians, Panini^ And in this cha- racter he is represented as a Brahman wearing the Brahmani- cal thready well-skilled in the Veda, and especially conversant with the Krama arrangement of the text. So much so that a saying is current among the Pandits : ' No one, not as skilled as Siva, can repeat the Krama' (nasivah Krama-pathakah). Among his names, too, are Mantra-vid, Brahma-vid, Brahma- I'ari, and Panditah. This, in fact, is one of many proofs that at least one form of Saivism is as much the peculiar system of Brahmans, learned men, and the higher classes of the Hindu community, as Vaishnavism is of men of the world, kings, heroes, and the lower orders^ In fact, a verse from the ancient version of Manu is often quoted: — 'Siva is the god of the Brahmans, Krishna (Vishnu) of the Kshatriyas, Brahma of the Vaisyas, and Ganesa of Sudras.'
V. In the fifth place, Siva is exactly the opposite of an ascetic and philosopher. He is a wild and jovial moun- taineer (Kirata), addicted to hunting and wine-drinking, fond of dancing (Nritya-priyah, also called -Natesvara, ' lord of dancing'), often dancing with his wife the Tandava dance,
* The first fourteen sutras of Panini are called the Siva-sfitras, and the whole grammar is believed to be a revelation from Siva, whence one of Siva's names is Vyakaranottarah. The miracle is made more remark- able by representing the reputed author Paiiini as naturally stupid.
■"' I noticed that a carving of Siva in the caves of Ellora represents him with the Brahmanical thread. His son Ganesa also wears this thread.
' There is another common saying, Niivishnuh piithivl-patih, ' No one except he resemble Vishnu ought to be a king.'
Saivism. 85
and surrounded by dwarfish, buffoon-like troops (gana) of attendants, who, hke their master, are fond of good Hving and occasionally inebriated by intoxicating liquors. The worshippers of Siva in this character generally belong to the sect called Sclktas, who are devoted to the wife of the god, and are given to self-indulgence and sensual gratification. Their religious books are called Tantras, and their peculiar tenets will be explained under the head of Saktism.
A still more remarkable aspect of the god is as a being half-male, half-female (Ardha-narl) ^ This really belongs to the second of the characters just described. It sym- bolizes both the duality and unity of the generative act and the production of the universe from the union of two eternal principles (Prakriti and Purusha, Maya and Atman), accord- ing to the Sahkhya and Vedanta systems of philosophy.
Further, it should be noted that, according to some Puranas, there are eight principal personal manifestations of Siva^ called Rudra, Bhairava (or Bhima), Ugra, Isvara (or Isana or Isa), Mahadeva (or Mahesvara), Pasupati, Sarva, and Bhava.
Again, he is specially manifested in eight material forms (Tanus)— Fire, Water, Earth, Air, Ether (which are the five elements, represented by his five faces), the Sun, Moon, and the sacrificing Brahman. By these he upholds the world.
In Southern India Siva is celebrated as the worker of 64 special miracles. He raised the dead, healed the blind, deaf, lame, etc., and gave similar powers to 6'i, of his saints.
It might have been expected that so great a variety of the god Siva's characters and aspects would have led to a cor- responding variety in the sects which are addicted to his exclusive worship. We find, however, that Saivism has not,
^ In the caves of Elephanta I saw a fine carvinj; of Siva and Parvati thus united in one body. The female side forms the left side of the god, and is represented holding a looking-glass. It is noticeable that the wife is always on the left side, except as a bride at the nuptial ceremony, when she is placed on the right.
86 Saivisrn. Saiva Sects.
like Vaishnavism, resolved itself into many separate organized societies under great religious leaders. It would in truth be difficult to name any conspicuous apostle and teacher of pure Saivism (certainly not Basaba, p. 88), like the celebrated Vaish- nava teachers Ramanuja, Madhva, (^aitanya, and Vallabha. For we have already seen that the great Sahkara, though held by some to have Saiva proclivities, abstained from incul- cating devotion to any one god more than to another.
Unquestionably all Hindus, even the strictest Vaishnavas, are ready to pay homage to Siva in his first and second characters of Dissolver and Regenerator. It is clear, too, that in the days of Saiikara several sects of Saivas existed and became the object of his controversial onslaughts. In the Sankara-vijaya six are named : to wit, i. the Saivas, par excellence, who had the Linga branded on both arms ; 3. the Raudras, who had the trident branded on the forehead ; 3. the Ugras, who had the Damaru (see p. 81) branded on the two arms ; 4. the Bhattas, who had the Linga on the forehead ; 5. the Jarigamas^ who bore the trident on the head and carried a Liiiga made of stone on their persons; 6. the Pasupatas, who had the latter symbol branded on the fore- head, arms, breast, and navel.
These sects are described in the Saiikara-vijaya as hostile to the doctrine of Non-duality (Advaita-drohinah). Their practice of branding is denounced by Sahkara on the ground that various gods are present in the limbs of the human body\ who are driven away by the burning (tapana) of the skin.
Of the six sects named only the two last remain to the present day, and both these have altered not a few of their tenets and practices. In modern times Saiva sectarians are generally followers of Siva in his third character of an ascetic. They profess to practise, like their god, severe aus- terities and bodily mortifications. Numbers of them may be
* May we not compare the Christian idea of the sanctity of the body as the temple of the Holy Ghost ?
Saivism. Saiva Sects. 87
seen at sacred places of pilgrimage, where they appear as reh'gious mendicants.
Those who claim to be SannyasTs are the most orthodox sect. Indeed all Brahmans towards the close of their lives ought to abandon worldly ties and become SannyasTs. But the ordinary Saiva SannyasTs are by no means of so respect- able a type. They are often confounded with other orders of mendicant ascetics and devotees called VairagTs (usually held to be Vaishnavas), Gosains and YogTs^ (corrupted into JogT) ; the latter being a general name for all who seek by their austerities to achieve complete union with the deity.
The theory is that a Hindu who aims at perfection ought to go through six successive courses of penance and austerity of twelve years each, rising by degrees up to the highest order of all — the Parama-hansa, who is supposed to be wholly absorbed in meditating on Brahman, and to do nothing else whatever.
Then there is an order of Saiva ascetics called Dandin, or staff-bearers, ten divisions of whom — called Dasa-namT Dandins, said to carry ten different forms of staff — are alleged to have been founded by Sahkaracarya.
There are also the Aghora-panthTs (panthT = Sanskrit pathin), who propitiate Siva by their revolting diet (seep. 94); the Urdhva-brdius, who extend one or both arms over the head and hold them in that position for years^; the Akasa-mukhins,
^ They are sometimes called Sadhus, and often improperly termed Fakirs, a name which ought to be restricted to Muhammadan mendicants. Bhagat (probably for Bhakta) is sometimes used for Vaishnava devotees. Mahant is applied to a leader of one of these sects, or to the head of a monastery.
^ This kind of devotee is not so commonly seen as in former days. During the whole course of my travels I only saw two examples, one at Gaya. and the other at Benares. The arm of the former was quite withered, and his fist was so tightly clenched that the nails were growing through the back of his hand. The latter looked like a piece of sculp- ture, sitting in a niche of the Anna-purna temple, perfectly motionless and impassive, with naked body smeared all over with white ashes, matted hair, and the forefinger of the upraised hand pointing to the
88 Saivism. Saiva Sects.
who keep their necks bent back looking up at the sky; the Kripfilikas, who use a dead man's skull for a drinking-cup^.
Most of these Saiva ascetics are disreputable in character and decidedly dirty in their habits. With Christians, clean- liness is said to be next to godliness, but with Hindus, who in their general habits are quite as cleanly as Europeans, filth appears to be regarded as a necessary accompaniment and evidence of particular forms of sanctity^.
We may also note that a sect of Saivas exists in the South of India — mostly in the Mysore and Kanarese country — who were formed into a religious community about the eleventh or twelfth century by a leader named Basaba (for Sanskrit Vrishabha), and are called Lihgavats (popularly Lingaits), because they wear the Linga in a silver or metallic casket suspended round their necks with a cord like a necklace. They are usually identified with the Jahgamas of Sankara's day, described as utterly unorthodox and despicable.
In fact, this sect is opposed to all the orthodox practices and religious usages of the Hindus, such as caste-distinctions^, the authority of the Brahmans, the inspiration of the Veda, and Brahmanical sacrifices ; and they bury instead of burning their dead.
With regard to Saiva philosophical doctrines it should be observed that, like those of the Vaishnava sects, they deviate more or less from the orthodox Vedanta doctrine of the identity of the Supreme and human spirit, the amount of
heaven to which in imagination he seemed to be already transporting himself.
' This order is said to have been founded by Sankara ; compare p. 59.
"^ Ikit only in the case of ascetics. As a general rule Hinduism incul- cates a strict regard for cleanliness. The late Lord Beaconsfield was right when he said that Moses, Muhammad, and Manu all make clean- liness a religious duty.
' The Lingaits of the present day are said to be returning to caste- rules, and only to disregard caste on certain days of the week. I have heard some declare that they belong to a fifth caste (pafidama), which is superior to the four castes of the Brahmanical system.
Saivism. Saiva Sccis. 89
deviation depending of course on the intensity of the person- ality attributed to Siva.
A particular system, which may be called the Saiva-darsana par excellence, came into vogue in India about the tenth or eleventh century. It was handed down in twenty-eight books, called Agamas, almost all of which are lost. This philosophy is followed by a sect in the South of India, and is wholly opposed to the non-duality of the Vedanta. Its founder, like theVaishnava teacher Ramanuja (seep. 1 19), taught that three entities have a separate existence, i. The Lord (Siva) called Pasupati, ' lord of the soul ' (Pasu). 2. The Soul called Pasu, 'an animal.' 3. Matter called Pasa, 'a fetter.' The soul which belongs to the Lord as to a master, is bound by matter as a beast (pasu) is by a fetter ; and of course the great aim of the Saiva philosophy is to set it free and restore it to its rightful owner. These doctrines have evidently much in com- mon wath the theistic Sahkhya.
Another Saiva sect, called Pasupatas, already noticed (p. 59), seem to be connected with the preceding much as the Madhva is with the Ramanuja sect ; for instead of affirming the sepa- rate existence of three entities they are content to distinguish between two — Pati and Pasu. The former (Pati) is the Lord (Isvara), the cause and creator (karta) of all things, the latter is the effect (karya) or that which is created and wholly b dependent on the cause. The Pasupatas try to induce ecstatic union with their lord by singing, dancing, and gesticulations.
I propose deferring to a subsequent chapter a description of the principal Saiva temples visited by me. Perhaps, how- ever, a brief account of the ceremonies I saw performed at a Lihga shrine near Bombay may fitly be introduced here.
It has been already stated that on ordinary occasions the form of worship consists in simply pouring water over the Lihga and offering Bilva leaves (see p. 68). On great festi- vals a more complicated ceremonial is observed. In the year 1877 I visited the temple dedicated to Siva at Walkesvar,
90 Saivism. Saiva Ceremonies.
near Bombay, on the morning after the Siva-rat (rat = ratn) or fast kept in honour of the god. The Linga shrine there is not large, and the symbol is not too sacred to be exposed to observation. I was permitted, in fact, to stand close to the entrance of the small sanctuary and to note down all I witnessed. In the centre of the shrine was the Lihga, a plain upright stone, which on the occasion of the Siva-rat cere- mony was covered with a pile of Bilva (BlP) leaves. Near it there were several high candlesticks with lights kept con- tinually burning. Behind, in a niche, was the image of Siva's wife Parvatl, which on the occasion of my visit was loaded with sacred flowers resembling marigolds. In front, looking into the sanctuary, was the image of a bull made of brass ; the bull being Siva's vehicle, and, like the Liiiga, symbolical of reproductive energy. Above the upright stone was hang- ing a large vase full of water. It had a perforation in its lowest part through which the liquid trickled out, drop by drop, falling at regular intervals on the symbol under- neath. When I asked a bystander the meaning of this con- stant dripping, he replied with much naivete, ' Holy water from the Ganges is falling on the head of God.' No further explanation appeared to him to be needed. In front of the porch before the door of the sanctuary were three long rows of bells, and above them a line of svastikas or sacred crosses^ interspersed with trees and figures of elephants, and over all the hood of a cobra snake. Above the door itself was the image of Siva's son Ganesa.
Outside the shrine, on the morning of my visit, stood a row of male worshippers (three or four women standing near), and in front of them a priest, holding a tray of Bilva leaves, sup-
' The Bilva, corrupted into Bll, is the ^gle Marmelos, a very astrin- gent plant.
'•* The Svastika mark is an auspicious symbol with four arms in the form of a Greek cross, the termination of each arm being bent round in the direction of the sun. See note i, p. 104.
Saivism. Saiva Ccrcniomes. 91
posed to possess cooling properties grateful to the god Siva. Some of these the priest placed in the hands of each wor- shipper, at the same time muttering prayers and texts. Next he dipped his finger in a vase of holy water and touched the two eyes and breasts of each. To me, a spectator, it seemed exactly as if he were making the sign of a cross on their bodies. Then each of the worshippers heaped the leaves received from the priest on the head of the bull. I noticed that some also besprinkled it with saffron (kurikuma) powder, which they purchased from a man standing near.
This preliminary ceremony ended, all entered the shrine, and after ringing the bells at the entrance, prostrated them- selves before the central symbol, touching the ground with their foreheads. Their next act was to pile more Bilva leaves on the stone symbol. Then taking small lotas of holy water, they poured abundance of the sacred liquid over both leaves and symbol. All the worshippers then seated them- selves in a circle round the central stone while the priest lighted lamps and waved them before it. Every now and then a fresh worshipper entered the shrine, ringing one of the bells at the door before entering. Moreover, in the shrine there was a constant ringing of small portable bells and clap- ping of hands, as if to draw the attention of the deity wor- shipped to the prayers muttered by his worshippers, while a number of priests in another part of the sanctuary intoned texts and chanted hymns in chants very like Gregorian.
Outside the shrine, on one side, sat a nearly naked ascetic, with long matted hair coiled round and round into a high peak, his face and body covered with white ashes. On the other side sat a Brahman with a little wooden table before him, on which was a lota of holy water, several implements of worship, and a copy of one of the Puranas or ancient sacred scriptures. He had three white streaks on his fore- head and the same on his shoulders to denote his devotion to Siva. Hanging over his left shoulder and under his right
c)2 Sahism. Saiva Ceremonies.
arm was the sacred cord of three coils of cotton — the mark of his second birth — and his right hand was inserted in a Gomukhl or bag. I asked what he was doing. ' He is counting the beads of his rosary,' said a bystander, ' and each time he tells a bead he repeats one of the 1008 names of the god Siva, but this operation must on no account be seen, and so the hand and rosary are concealed in the bag.'
No doubt he was muttering to himself, but in so low a tone that no sound was audible ; and his eyes were intently fixed, as if in profound meditation, which neither my presence nor any- thing passing around appeared to distract for a single instant.
Another devotee was also seated cross-legged outside the entrance to the shrine, whose intoning of one of the Siva- puranas and muttering of prayers ( japa) was audible to every one. He had before him a low wooden table, on which was a Rudraksha rosary (see p. 82), a Liiiga-purana, a little metal saucer of rice, a small lota of holy water on a three- legged stand, a little spoon, a heap of Bilva leaves, a sacred conch-shell (saiikha) — sometimes blown like a horn or used as a Saiva symbol, though usually appropriated to Vishnu — three green mangoes, a small bell, a leaf full of dates, and a little bag containing the Vibhuti or white ashes for marking his forehead with the three Saiva streaks. While I was taking this catalogue he took no notice of my proceedings, but continued muttering his prayers with intense earnestness as if quite abstracted from the world around him.
Though greatly interested in all I was allowed to witness, I came away sick at heart. No one could be present at such a scene without feeling depressed by the thought that, not- withstanding all our efforts for the extension of education and the diffusion of knowledge, we have as yet done little to loosen the iron grip of idolatry and superstition on the masses of the people. Indeed it would be easy to show that other forms of Siva-worship are characterized by superstitious ob- servances of a still lower type. Turn we, for example, to the
Sahis??i. Saiva Ceremonies, 93
ceremonies performed at the great Saiva temple of Bhu- vancsvara in Orissa. These are so unique that I may be pardoned for giving some idea of them before conckiding this chapter. My authority is Dr. Rajendralala Mitra, who has described the ceremonial in the second volume of his work on Orissa. Siva is worshipped at that particular locality under the form of a large uncarved block or slab of granite, about eight feet long, partly buried in the ground, partly apparent above the soil to the height of about eight inches. The block is believed to be a Liiiga of the Svayambhu class (see p. 69), and is surrounded by a rim, supposed, of course, to represent the female organ (Yoni). The daily worship con- sists of no less than twenty-two ceremonial acts.
(i) At the first appearance of dawn bells are rung to rouse the deity from his slumbers ; (2) a lamp with many wicks is waved in front of the stone ; (3) the god's teeth are cleaned by pouring water and rubbing a stick about a foot long on the stone ; (4) the deity is washed and bathed by empty- ing several pitchers of water on the stone ; (5) the god is dressed by putting clothes on the stone ; (6) the first break- fast is offered, consisting of grain, sweetmeats, curd, and cocoanuts ; (7) the god has his principal breakfast, when cakes and more substantial viands are served ; (8) a kind of little lunch is offered ; (9) the god has his regular lunch ; (10) the mid-day dinner is served, consisting of curry, rice, pastr)'-, cakes, cream, etc., while a priest waves a many- flamed lamp and burns incense before the stone ; (11) strains of noisy discordant music rouse the deity from his afternoon sleep at 4 P.Tkl., the sanctuary having been closed for the pre- ceding four hours; (12) sweetmeats are offered; (13) the afternoon bath is administered ; (14) the god is dressed as in the morning; (15) another meal is served; (16) another bath is administered ; (17) the full-dress ceremony takes place, when fine costly vestments, yellow flowers, and per- fumery are placed on the stone; (18) another offering of
94 Saivism. Saiva Ceremonies.
food follows; (19) after an hour's interval the regular supper is served ; (20) five masks^ and a Damaru are brought in and oblations made to them ; (21) waving of lights (arti ; Sanskrit, arati) is performed before bedtime ; (22) a bedstead is brought into the sanctuary and the god composed to sleep.
Of course the offerings are ultimately eaten by the priests and attendants, the superfluity being sold.
This brief summary of a tedious series of ceremonies must conclude our account of Saivism. The Bhuvanesvara cere- monial seems to be an imitation of the forms of worship offered to the images of Krishna. The usual Saiva services, though certainly marked by degrading superstitious observ- ances, have the merit of being exceedingly simple.
It is satisfactory to find that many enlightened Brahmans in the present day are striving by their writings to expose the absurdities of idol-offerings. In a GujaratI work called Agama-prakasa (p. 162-) the following sentiment occurs: ' When one remembers the greatness of the perfect God who is Existence, Knowledge, and Bliss, how can any idea be formed of offering food and oblations to such a Being ? '
The author of the same work in expressing his disgust at the practices of the Aghora-panthis (mentioned at p. 87 of this chapter) states that their number is happily decreasing^. Yet many are still to be found who believe they are pro- pitiating Siva not by worship, but by feeding on filth and animal excreta of all kinds. He asserts that occasional instances occur of fanatical members of the sect eating corpses stolen from Muhammadan burial-grounds ; and that the head of the Aghoris near Siddhapur subsists on scorpions, lizards, and loathsome insects left to putrefy in a dead-man's skull (p. 7).
' Intended, I presume, to represent Siva's five faces (p. 79), which may possibly be connected with the five elements ; as to the Damaru, see p. 81.
* Given to me by Rao Bahadur Gopal Hari Deshmukh at Ahmedabad and written by himself.
^ In the whole course of my travels I only met with one Aghorl — a disgusting creature who accosted me at Benares.
CHAPTER V.
Vaishnavism. General Characteristics. Four Sects.
The preceding chapters of this work will, I trust, have made it clear that, in respect of religious belief, the Hindus of the present day may be broadly divided into three principal classes^, namely, (i) Smartas, (2) Saivas, (3) Vaishnavas.
The first class believe that man's spirit is identical with the one infinite Spirit (Atma, Brahma-) which is the sub- stratum of the Universe and only cognizable through internal meditation and self-communion. They regard that Spirit as the highest object of all religious knowledge and aspiration. They are also believers in the Tri-murti ; that is, in the three personal gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva — with their train of
^ These, of course, are capable of subdivision.
^ It is worthy of note that Atman (which is the earHer word for the one Spirit of the Universe) is mascuHne, while Brahman, the later word, is neuter. The etymology of Atman is doubtful. Some derive it from at, to move ; others from ah, connected with aham, I ; others from vd^ to blow as the wind ; and others (as we have seen) from an, to breathe (compare p. 20). No doubt atman was originally the breath of life — the breath that animates the Universe and man's l